Title: The political attitudes of Muslims studying at British universities in the post-9/11 world—Part II
Abstract: Abstract Abstract This is the second of two articles based on small-scale empirical research involving several hundred Muslim university students in Britain that was conducted between December 2003 and April 2004. The first article, which was published in the last issue of the Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs,1 1. See Michael Appleton, 'The political attitudes of Muslims studying at British universities in the post-9/11 world—Part I', Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 25, No. 2, August 2005. explained how the empirical data was collected; delineated three strategies undertaken by British Muslims to express their religio-political identities; and discussed competing claims on the students' political loyalty. This second article will be divided into three sections. The first will deal with the students' views of the events of September 11, 2001. The second will discuss the students' views with regard to the Western influence on the lives of Muslims. And the third will analyse the respondents' views regarding the West/Muslim world dialectic and the confrontational and conciliatory visions thereof. Notes 1. See Michael Appleton, 'The political attitudes of Muslims studying at British universities in the post-9/11 world—Part I', Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 25, No. 2, August 2005. 2. Alan Travis, 'Muslims abandon Labour Over Iraq War', Guardian, 15 March 2004. 3. Ciaran Fagan, 'Poll of Muslims "not fair"', Leicester Mercury, 16 March 2004. 4. Carol Sarler, 'Figure out these statistics of hate', Express, 17 March 2004. 5. Pola Manzila Uddin, 'Once, Muslims and Labour were natural allies. Not now', Guardian, 19 June 2004. 6. Daoud Rosser-Owen, 'Is there such a thing as British Islam?', paper delivered to Representing Islam, a British Council seminar held in London on 22–27 June 2003; Jørgen Nielsen, quoted in John Esposito et al., Citizenship and Political Participation, a panel discussion at Muslims in Europe post 9/11, a conference held in Oxford on 25–26 April 2003, available online at <http://www.sant.ox.ac.uk/princeton/discussion-3.shtml> Anthony McRoy, 'Rushdie's legacy: the emergence of a radical British identity', unpublished PhD thesis, Brunel University, London, October 2001. 7. Pnina Werbner, 'The predicament of diaspora and millenial Islam: reflections in the aftermath of September 11', After September 11 Forum, Social Science Research Council, 2002, available online at <http://www.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/werbner_text_only.html>. 8. Anonymous, 'There are no Muslim terrorists', Q-News, October 2001. 9. Shagufta Yaqub, 'Editorial', Q-News, October 2001. 10. Werbner, 'The predicament of diaspora and millenial Islam', op. cit. 11. Lori Peek, 'Community isolation and group solidarity: examining the Muslim student experience after September 11th', in Beyond September 11: An Account of Post-Disaster Research, ed., J. L. Monday, Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, 2003, pp. 333–354. See also Lori Peek, 'Reactions and response: Muslim students' experiences on New York City campuses post-9/11', Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 2, October 2003, pp. 271–284. 12. Peek, 'Community isolation', op. cit. 13. Ibid. 14. For a full methodology, see the first part of this article in the last issue of Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 15. I shall describe respondents by gender, age, and subject. I shall describe interviewees using pseudonyms. 16. Historically, states have targeted civilians where they saw it as militarily advantageous. See Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, New York: Basic Books, 2000. 17. These 'rules' of war (i.e. Islamic just war theory) can be traced to foundational Islamic sources (Qur'an and hadith). See Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam, Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1996. 18. Khaled Abou El Fadl, 'Striking a balance: Islamic legal discourse on Muslim minorities', in Muslims on the Americanization Path, eds, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 47–63. 19. C. Allen and J. Nielsen, Summary Report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001, Brussels: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, 2002. 20. Muslims have been disproportionately stopped and searched under anti-terrorism laws. See Hugh Muir, 'Mosques launch protests against "terror" arrests', Guardian, 13 December 2003; Nigel Morris, 'Police accused of "Islamophobic" stop and search tactics', Independent, 3 July 2004. 21. See, for example, Fred Halliday, 'Islam is in danger: authority, Rushdie and the struggle for the Migrant soul', in The Next Threat: Western Perception of Islam, eds, Jochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg, London: Pluto Press, 1995, pp. 71–81; Séan McLoughlin, 'In the name of the Umma', in Political Participation and Identities of Muslims in Non-Muslim States, eds, W. A. R. Shadid and P. S. van Koningsveld, Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1998, pp. 206–228; Talal Asad, 'Multiculturalism and British identity in the wake of the Rushdie affair', Politics and Society, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1990, pp. 455–480; Pnina Werbner, 'Diaspora and millennium: British Pakistani global–local fabulations of the Gulf War', in Islam, Globalization and Postmodernity, eds, Akbar S. Ahmed and Hastings Donnan, London: Routledge, 1994, pp. 213–236. 22. Tim Winter, 'Some thoughts on the formation of British Muslim identity', Encounters, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2001, pp. 3–26. 23. Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. 24. Majid Khadduri, 'The Islamic theory of international relations and its contemporary relevance', in Islam and International Relations, ed., J. Harris Proctor, New York: Praegar, 1965. 25. Halil Înalcik, 'Dar al'Ahd', in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds, J. H. Kramers, H. A. R. Gibb and E. Lévi-Provençal, Vol. 2, 2nd edition, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1954. 26. Ramadan, Western Muslims, op. cit. 27. C.J. Weeramantry, Islamic Jurisprudence: An International Perspective, London: Macmillan, 1988. 28. Ramadan, Western Muslims, op. cit. 29. Ibid.; Gilles Kepel, Allah in the West: Islamic Movements in America and Europe, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997; Ataullah Siddiqui, 'Muslims in the contemporary world: dialogue in perspective', World Faiths Encounter, Vol. 20, 1998, pp. 24–30. 30. Weeramantry, Islamic Jurisprudence, op. cit. 31. Mohammad Siddique Seddon, 'Locating the perpetuation of "otherness": negating British Islam', Encounters, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2001 pp. 139–161; Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism: A Short History of Anti-Westernism, London: Atlantic, 2004. 32. Jack Donnelly, 'Twentieth century realism', in Traditions of International Ethics, eds, Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 85–111. 33. Samuel Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3, 1993, pp. 22–49; Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996. 34. Tariq Ali, The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads, and Modernity, London: Verso, 2002; Edward Said, 'The clash of ignorance', The Nation, 4 October, 2001, available online at <http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i = 20011022&s = said>; Abdal Hakim Murad, 'The clash of caricatures', Islamica Magazine, Vol. 10, Winter 2004, pp. 6–10. 35. This search was conducted using LexusNexus, and included all national newspapers, except the Financial Times. Twelve such articles appeared between 12 March 1999 and 11 September 2001; 356 appeared between 12 September 2001 and 11 March 2004. 36. Hasan Le-Gai Eaton, 'Cool Islam', Q-News, October, 2003, pp. 46–49; Mustafa Ceric, 'European Islam: continuous evolution and recent arrival', a paper delivered to Representing Islam, a British Council seminar held in London on 22–27 June 2003. 37. Of course, Communism and Nazism were products of Western civilization. 38. Jørgen Nielsen, 'Muslims in Europe into the next millennium', in Islam in Europe, eds, Steven Vertovec and Ceri Peach, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997, pp. 263–272. 39. Slavoj Žižek, Welcome to the Desert of the Real, London: Verso, 2002. 40. Bassam Tibi, Islam between Culture and Politics, New York: Palgrave, 2001; Mustapha Kamal Pasha and Ahmed I Samatar, 'The resurgence of Islam', in Globalization: Critical Reflections, ed., James H Mittelman, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996, pp. 187–201. 41. Robert Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World, New York: Harper and Row, 1970. 42. Charis Waddy, The Muslim Mind, 3rd edn, London: Grosvenor, 1990. 43. Michael Scott Doran, 'Gods and monsters', Guardian, 8 December, 2001; Jim Hoagland, 'Islam's Civil War', Washington Post, 3 March 2004, p. A27. 44. Nushin Arbabzadah-Green, 'Representing Islam: a conference report', a report on Representing Islam, a British Council seminar held in London on 22–27 June 2003. 45. Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Vol. 2, London: Blackwell, 1999. 46. Jocelyne Cesari, 'Citizenship and political participation', a paper delivered at Muslims in Europe post 9/11, a conference held in Oxford on 25–26 April, 2003, available online at <http://www.sant.ox.ac.uk/princeton/pap_cesari.shtml>. 47. Bassam Tibi, Islam between Culture and Politics, New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Publication Year: 2005
Publication Date: 2005-12-01
Language: en
Type: article
Indexed In: ['crossref']
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Cited By Count: 6
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