Title: Reception of Greek Tragedy in Chinese Literature and Performance
Abstract: Free Access Reception of Greek Tragedy in Chinese Literature and Performance First published: 14 November 2013 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118351222.wbegt9991 AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat The reception of Greek tragedy by modern Chinese literature began more than 70 years ago when Aeschylus’ *Prometheus Bound was first translated into Chinese by Yang Hui (杨晦) in 1926 and published in 1932 (Yang Hui 1932: 9). It was through the translations of Greek tragedies into Chinese that their influence on Chinese literature was first exerted. By the end of 2010, all 32 extant Greek tragedies had Chinese versions, and some of the more famous tragedies (e.g., Aeschylus’ Agamemnon and *Prometheus Bound, Euripides’ Medea) have five or more translated texts. The reasons why *Prometheus Bound attracted a number of Chinese translators are many: the earliest translators hoped that a figure like Prometheus could light up the dark and decaying Chinese society; later, during the Anti-Japanese War period (1937–45), Prometheus’ rebellion against Zeus struck a deep chord with Chinese translators. From the 1950s on, however, *Prometheus Bound has been admired more for its dramaturgy; and the chorus, for example, has been emphasized by translators. Among Chinese translators, the important and influential ones are Luo Niansheng (罗念生) and Zhou Zuoren (周作人). Both of them remained committed to translating ancient Greek literature for decades, and translated more than ten plays directly from the Greek (Zhou Zuoren 2003; Luo Niansheng 2004). Luo translated three plays of Aeschylus, four of Sophocles, and five of Euripides; Zhou translated 13 plays of Euripides. The latest achievement in the translation of Greek tragedy is The Corpus of Greek Tragedies and Comedies (eight volumes in total) co-translated by Zhang Zhuming (张竹明) and Wang Huansheng (王焕生) in 2007 (Zhang Zhuming and Wang Huansheng 2007). From the late Qing dynasty (1840–1911) to the May Fourth period (c. 1919), Chinese intellectuals engaged in enlightening their people and saving the nation from subjugation. At that time western literature as a whole, regarded as progressive and modern, was introduced into China in many forms. The world of theater was no exception. In the 1920s, many western plays were translated and introduced into the Chinese theater (Tian Benxiang 1993: 119). And with it came a debate on new and traditional drama, which ended up with a victory for the new (Hu Shi 1935: 376–86). Thereafter, western drama instead of traditional Chinese drama and operas has been chosen as the new orientation. The word hua ju (话剧 “modern play/drama”) was coined as a new term in 1922 or 1928 (Hu Ningrong 2007: 97–8). The translation, adaptation, and reception of Greek tragedies were the means to assure the success of the new dramatic form of hua ju. Nevertheless, because of the notable difference between Chinese and Greek drama, most literary reception consisted frequently in taking themes, plots, characters, ideas, and settings. Only infrequently was there a reception of images and structure; and none at all of style of language. Cao Yu (曹禺), a famous playwright who has written that he liked reading Greek drama (especially Euripides and Sophocles), published his first major tragedy Thunderstorm in 1934. Subsequently, he became a leading figure in the history of Chinese modern drama. Influenced by Henrik Ibsen and Eugene O'Neill, Thunderstorm also alludes to Euripides’ Hippolytus and Racine's Phèdre in its subject matter. It dramatizes how a stepmother, Zhou Fanyi, incurably loves her stepson, Zhou Ping, and invites a family disaster (Liu Xiwei 1935). Like Oedipus who finally discovers he has married his mother, Zhou Ping discovers his true love, Lu Sifeng, is his sister; the discovery (anagnōrisis) leads to the tragic end. Besides, as Guo Moruo said in 1936, the strong tragic moira (or fate) displayed in Thunderstorm was typical of Greek tragedy (Guo Moruo 1991: 503). Cao Yu himself referred to this tragic destiny as the “cruelty in the cosmos,” and said that this destiny could be from the Hebrew God or Greek destiny (Cao Yu 1988: 212). As a successful tragedian, Cao Yu is not a simple imitator; many of his plays, like Thunderstorm, Sunrise (1936), and Field (1937), manifest Greek themes such as destiny and self, revenge and being avenged, and female subordination. Some dramatists active in that period, such as Guo Moruo (郭沫若) and Li Jianwu (李健吾), were acquainted with Greek dramas too. Guo said in 1941 that he was attempting to write historical or poetic dramas under the influence of Greek tragedians, Shakespeare, and Goethe (Guo Moruo 1982: 327), and most of his dramas from the 1920s to the 1940s, such as The Flower of Tang Di, characterized ancient Chinese heroes as tragic and sublime. Li adapted Aristophanes’ Ecclesiazusae in 1946, translated *Prometheus Bound from English in 1951, and enthusiastically recommended Greek tragedy and performance to Chinese audiences when the Greek National Theatre visited China in 1979 (Li Jianwu 1979: 45–7). Nevertheless, it is unclear whether the plays of both these dramatists, Guo and Li, show actual links with Greek tragedy. The recorded history of the stage performance of Greek tragedy in China started in 1942, when Chen Zhice (陈治策) rehearsed and presented part of Medea at the National Theater School, which had moved to Jiang'an, Sichuan province, because of the Anti-Japanese War. The audiences felt a great shock (Luo Niansheng 2007: 344; Tian Zhuang [who played Jason] 1995: 221). No further performance of Greek tragedy occurred in China until the 1980s when three Greek tragedies, Sophocles’ Oedipus the King (1986) and Antigone (1988) and Euripides’ Trojan Women (1992) had public performances in Beijing, with Chinese directors and adhering to the style of the originals. Their performances abroad even called forth a heated debate in Greece about how to treat ancient tragedy tradition (Wu Jicheng 1986: 59). Out of these stage experiences, a few Chinese directors have learned to pursue a localized practice: adapting Greek tragedies to the forms of traditional Chinese operas, such as Hebei Bangzi opera (河北梆子) and Peking opera. Hebei Bangzi opera features intense high-pitched vocals and a solemn style, therefore it was considered very fitting of traditional Chinese opera styles for the adaptation of Greek tragedy (Zhu Hengfu 2010: 35–6). The Hebei Bangzi opera Antigone (1988), which was adapted from Sophocles’ tragedy and directed by Luo Jinlin (罗锦鳞, son of Luo Niansheng), marked the beginning of such attempts (Luo Jinlin 2003). The following year the Hebei Bangzi opera Medea was a success both in Beijing and overseas. One feature of such adaptation was to add to the original story. For example, the Hebei Bangzi opera Medea is in five acts, adding two acts “Getting the Treasure” and “Boiling the Goat” to the original three acts, “Leaving Home,” “The Change of Love,” and “The Killing of Sons.” In this Medea, the chorus differs from the traditional Greek chorus by functioning as stage props or scenery (Luo Jinlin 1995: 48). Two Greek tragedies – Bacchae (1996) and Oedipus the King (2008) – were combined with Peking opera and performed in China. Bacchae was directed by the American director Shizheng Chen (陈士争) and co-performed by the China National Peking Opera Company and the Greek Theatre of New York. The chorus sang in ancient Greek, but the play used three Chinese actors who performed with the acting techniques of Peking opera, and spoke in Chinese, occasionally inserting rhythmed recitation as is common in Peking opera (Steadman 1996: 22–4). But this play was criticized for its implausible mixture of elements from Greek tragedy and Peking opera. Further, the sections from Peking opera were said to be cut into meaningless fragments (Tang Xiaobai 1996: 42–3). By comparison, Oedipus the King, co-directed by Lu Ang (卢昂) and Weng Guosheng (翁国生, who played Oedipus), won wide acceptance from both Chinese and western audiences. It absorbed as many oriental elements as possible from Peking opera, such as the crisscrossing of vast spans of time and space and having a simple setting or no setting at all. Thus it appeared extremely impressive, especially when Oedipus danced, waving three-meter-long sleeves, to express his torturous self-blinding (Mei Cheng 2009: 18–19). RONGNU CHEN See also Opera and Greek Tragedy; Reception; sections on Afterlife under individual play titles References Cao Yu. 1988. “ Lei Yu xu ,” Cao Yu Wenji (di yi juan), Tian Benxiang bian. Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe (曹禺, “⟪雷雨⟫ 序”, 见 ⟪曹禺文集⟫ (第一卷), 田本相编,北京: 中国戏剧出版社; “Preface to Thunderstorm,” in The Collected Works of Yu Cao, vol. 1, ed. Tian Benxiang. 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Google Scholar Further Reading Haibo Zhou. 1999. “ Gudai ‘shenhua'yu xiandai qimeng de yuhe – zhongguo xiandai wenxue dui guxila wenxue de yijie yu jiejian.” Qilu xuekan, 1999 nian di 6 qi (周海波, “古代 ‘神话’ 与现代启蒙的遇合 – 中国现代文学对古希腊文学的译介与借鉴”, ⟪齐鲁学刊⟫, 1999年第6期; “The Meeting of Ancient Myths and Modern Enlightenment: Introduction and Borrowing of Ancient Greek Literature by Chinese Modern Literature.” Qilu Journal 6: 82–7). Google Scholar Yunlong Zhou. 2009. “ Kuawenhua xiju yanjiu: guannian yu fangfa.” Fujian Luntan, 2009 nian di 4 qi (周云龙, “跨文化戏剧研究: 观念与方法”, ⟪福建论坛⟫, 2009年4期; “Cross-cultural Research of Drama: Idea and Approach.” Fujian Forum 4: 33–8). Google Scholar The Encyclopedia of Greek TragedyBrowse other articles of this reference work:BROWSE BY TOPICBROWSE A-Z ReferencesRelatedInformation