Get quick answers to your questions about the article from our AI researcher chatbot
{'id': 'https://openalex.org/W2963125461', 'doi': 'https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3063289', 'title': 'Counterfactual Explanations Without Opening the Black Box: Automated Decisions and the GDPR', 'display_name': 'Counterfactual Explanations Without Opening the Black Box: Automated Decisions and the GDPR', 'publication_year': 2017, 'publication_date': '2017-01-01', 'ids': {'openalex': 'https://openalex.org/W2963125461', 'doi': 'https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3063289', 'mag': '2963125461'}, 'language': 'en', 'primary_location': {'is_oa': False, 'landing_page_url': 'https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3063289', 'pdf_url': None, 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4210172589', 'display_name': 'SSRN Electronic Journal', 'issn_l': '1556-5068', 'issn': ['1556-5068'], 'is_oa': False, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I1318003438', 'host_organization_name': 'RELX Group (Netherlands)', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I1318003438'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['RELX Group (Netherlands)'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': None, 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}, 'type': 'article', 'type_crossref': 'journal-article', 'indexed_in': ['crossref'], 'open_access': {'is_oa': True, 'oa_status': 'green', 'oa_url': 'https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/delivery/44SUR_INST/12139779550002346/13140295860002346', 'any_repository_has_fulltext': True}, 'authorships': [{'author_position': 'first', 'author': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/A5075172090', 'display_name': 'Sandra Wachter', 'orcid': 'https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3800-0113'}, 'institutions': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/I193374721', 'display_name': 'Internet Society', 'ror': 'https://ror.org/04dzfqx38', 'country_code': 'US', 'type': 'nonprofit', 'lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I193374721']}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/I40120149', 'display_name': 'University of Oxford', 'ror': 'https://ror.org/052gg0110', 'country_code': 'GB', 'type': 'education', 'lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I40120149']}], 'countries': ['GB', 'US'], 'is_corresponding': True, 'raw_author_name': 'Sandra Wachter', 'raw_affiliation_strings': ['University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute'], 'affiliations': [{'raw_affiliation_string': 'University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute', 'institution_ids': ['https://openalex.org/I193374721', 'https://openalex.org/I40120149']}]}, {'author_position': 'middle', 'author': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/A5081516308', 'display_name': 'Brent Mittelstadt', 'orcid': 'https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4709-6404'}, 'institutions': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/I40120149', 'display_name': 'University of Oxford', 'ror': 'https://ror.org/052gg0110', 'country_code': 'GB', 'type': 'education', 'lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I40120149']}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/I193374721', 'display_name': 'Internet Society', 'ror': 'https://ror.org/04dzfqx38', 'country_code': 'US', 'type': 'nonprofit', 'lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I193374721']}], 'countries': ['GB', 'US'], 'is_corresponding': False, 'raw_author_name': 'Brent Mittelstadt', 'raw_affiliation_strings': ['University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute'], 'affiliations': [{'raw_affiliation_string': 'University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute', 'institution_ids': ['https://openalex.org/I40120149', 'https://openalex.org/I193374721']}]}, {'author_position': 'last', 'author': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/A5008943199', 'display_name': 'Chris Russell', 'orcid': 'https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1665-1759'}, 'institutions': [], 'countries': [], 'is_corresponding': False, 'raw_author_name': 'Chris Russell', 'raw_affiliation_strings': [], 'affiliations': []}], 'institution_assertions': [], 'countries_distinct_count': 2, 'institutions_distinct_count': 2, 'corresponding_author_ids': ['https://openalex.org/A5075172090'], 'corresponding_institution_ids': ['https://openalex.org/I193374721', 'https://openalex.org/I40120149'], 'apc_list': None, 'apc_paid': None, 'fwci': 565.849, 'has_fulltext': True, 'fulltext_origin': 'pdf', 'cited_by_count': 1251, 'citation_normalized_percentile': {'value': 0.999967, 'is_in_top_1_percent': True, 'is_in_top_10_percent': True}, 'cited_by_percentile_year': {'min': 99, 'max': 100}, 'biblio': {'volume': None, 'issue': None, 'first_page': None, 'last_page': None}, 'is_retracted': False, 'is_paratext': False, 'primary_topic': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T13364', 'display_name': 'Digitalization, Law, and Regulation', 'score': 0.9827, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/3308', 'display_name': 'Law'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/33', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}, 'topics': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/T13364', 'display_name': 'Digitalization, Law, and Regulation', 'score': 0.9827, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/3308', 'display_name': 'Law'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/33', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T11762', 'display_name': 'Law, Economics, and Judicial Systems', 'score': 0.966, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/2002', 'display_name': 'Economics and Econometrics'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/20', 'display_name': 'Economics, Econometrics and Finance'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T14493', 'display_name': 'Criminal Law and Evidence', 'score': 0.9635, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/3308', 'display_name': 'Law'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/33', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}], 'keywords': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/keywords/black-box', 'display_name': 'Black box', 'score': 0.64655805}], 'concepts': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/C108650721', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783253', 'display_name': 'Counterfactual thinking', 'level': 2, 'score': 0.84376454}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C94966114', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29256', 'display_name': 'Black box', 'level': 2, 'score': 0.64655805}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C162118730', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128453', 'display_name': 'Actuarial science', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.4636615}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C162324750', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134', 'display_name': 'Economics', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.4473014}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C41008148', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198', 'display_name': 'Computer science', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.37654456}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C144133560', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453', 'display_name': 'Business', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.3597902}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C149782125', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039', 'display_name': 'Econometrics', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.34787002}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C15744967', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418', 'display_name': 'Psychology', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.27587345}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C154945302', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660', 'display_name': 'Artificial intelligence', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.21330193}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C77805123', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272', 'display_name': 'Social psychology', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.21074793}], 'mesh': [], 'locations_count': 4, 'locations': [{'is_oa': False, 'landing_page_url': 'https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3063289', 'pdf_url': None, 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4210172589', 'display_name': 'SSRN Electronic Journal', 'issn_l': '1556-5068', 'issn': ['1556-5068'], 'is_oa': False, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I1318003438', 'host_organization_name': 'RELX Group (Netherlands)', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I1318003438'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['RELX Group (Netherlands)'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': None, 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}, {'is_oa': True, 'landing_page_url': 'https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/delivery/44SUR_INST/12139779550002346/13140295860002346', 'pdf_url': 'https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/delivery/44SUR_INST/12139779550002346/13140295860002346', 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306402651', 'display_name': 'Surrey Open Research repository (University of Surrey)', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': True, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I28290843', 'host_organization_name': 'University of Surrey', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I28290843'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['University of Surrey'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': 'acceptedVersion', 'is_accepted': True, 'is_published': False}, {'is_oa': True, 'landing_page_url': 'http://arxiv.org/abs/1711.00399', 'pdf_url': 'http://arxiv.org/pdf/1711.00399', 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306400194', 'display_name': 'arXiv (Cornell University)', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': True, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I205783295', 'host_organization_name': 'Cornell University', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I205783295'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['Cornell University'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': 'submittedVersion', 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}, {'is_oa': True, 'landing_page_url': 'https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:86dfcdac-10b5-4314-bbd1-08e6e78b9094', 'pdf_url': 'https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:86dfcdac-10b5-4314-bbd1-08e6e78b9094/files/m3e35a5a9050c9d0303a212972790591b', 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306402636', 'display_name': 'Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford)', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': True, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I40120149', 'host_organization_name': 'University of Oxford', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I40120149'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['University of Oxford'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': 'submittedVersion', 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}], 'best_oa_location': {'is_oa': True, 'landing_page_url': 'https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/delivery/44SUR_INST/12139779550002346/13140295860002346', 'pdf_url': 'https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/delivery/44SUR_INST/12139779550002346/13140295860002346', 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306402651', 'display_name': 'Surrey Open Research repository (University of Surrey)', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': True, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': False, 'host_organization': 'https://openalex.org/I28290843', 'host_organization_name': 'University of Surrey', 'host_organization_lineage': ['https://openalex.org/I28290843'], 'host_organization_lineage_names': ['University of Surrey'], 'type': 'repository'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': 'acceptedVersion', 'is_accepted': True, 'is_published': False}, 'sustainable_development_goals': [], 'grants': [], 'datasets': [], 'versions': [], 'referenced_works_count': 7, 'referenced_works': ['https://openalex.org/W4200505793', 'https://openalex.org/W4213091837', 'https://openalex.org/W4214499389', 'https://openalex.org/W4232829299', 'https://openalex.org/W4251554976', 'https://openalex.org/W4255257601', 'https://openalex.org/W4255312425'], 'related_works': ['https://openalex.org/W4384133558', 'https://openalex.org/W4286970243', 'https://openalex.org/W3201448254', 'https://openalex.org/W3028847759', 'https://openalex.org/W3025615835', 'https://openalex.org/W3003410553', 'https://openalex.org/W2899084033', 'https://openalex.org/W2390660599', 'https://openalex.org/W2066431708', 'https://openalex.org/W173210993'], 'abstract_inverted_index': {'There': [0], 'has': [1], 'been': [2], 'much': [3], 'discussion': [4], 'of': [5, 33, 45, 97, 110, 130, 171, 187, 255, 284, 326, 346, 378, 396, 409], 'the': [6, 11, 30, 43, 93, 117, 145, 167, 175, 185, 204, 219, 222, 243, 247, 261, 264, 272, 298, 302, 317, 352, 360, 369, 373, 392, 405], '"right': [7], 'to': [8, 26, 68, 81, 105, 154, 174, 183, 200, 214, 217, 228, 233, 237, 266, 289, 301, 308, 314, 330, 343, 365, 371], 'explanation"': [9], 'in': [10, 53, 139, 235, 242, 260], 'EU': [12], 'General': [13], 'Data': [14, 76], 'Protection': [15], 'Regulation,': [16], 'and': [17, 21, 39, 50, 95, 133, 169, 202, 226, 263, 404, 407], 'its': [18], 'existence,': [19], 'merits,': [20], 'disadvantages.': [22], 'Implementing': [23], 'a': [24, 57, 152, 156, 208, 239, 281, 310, 357, 382, 387, 400], 'right': [25], 'explanation': [27], 'that': [28, 88, 304, 363, 366, 390], 'opens': [29], "'black": [31, 273], "box'": [32], 'algorithmic': [34, 47, 122], 'decision-making': [35, 48, 249], 'faces': [36], 'major': [37], 'legal': [38], 'technical': [40, 394], 'barriers.': [41], 'Explaining': [42], 'functionality': [44], 'complex': [46], 'systems': [49, 123], 'their': [51, 74, 86], 'rationale': [52], 'specific': [54, 176], 'cases': [55], 'is': [56, 129, 224], 'technically': [58], 'challenging': [59], 'problem.': [60], 'Some': [61], 'explanations': [62, 137, 150, 172, 296, 338], 'may': [63], 'offer': [64, 280], 'little': [65], 'meaningful': [66], 'information': [67, 84], 'data': [69, 103, 157, 277], 'subjects,': [70], 'raising': [71], 'questions': [72], 'around': [73], 'value.': [75], 'controllers': [77, 278], 'have': [78], 'an': [79, 379], 'interest': [80], 'not': [82, 114], 'disclose': [83], 'about': [85], 'algorithms': [87], 'contains': [89], 'trade': [90, 413], 'secrets,': [91], 'violates': [92], 'rights': [94, 406], 'freedoms': [96, 408], 'others': [98, 410], '(e.g.': [99, 411], 'privacy),': [100], 'or': [101, 107, 178, 313, 324, 332, 376], 'allows': [102], 'subjects': [104], 'game': [106], 'manipulate': [108], 'decision-making.Explanations': [109], 'automated': [111, 191], 'decisions': [112], 'need': [113, 232, 370], 'hinge': [115, 269], 'on': [116, 246, 270, 359], 'general': [118], 'public': [119], 'understanding': [120], 'how': [121, 253], 'function.': [124], 'Even': [125], 'though': [126], 'such': [127], 'interpretability': [128], 'great': [131], 'importance': [132], 'should': [134, 279], 'be': [135, 141, 306, 340], 'pursued,': [136], 'can,': [138], 'principle,': [140], 'offered': [142], 'without': [143, 368], 'opening': [144, 271], 'black': [146], 'box.': [147], 'Looking': [148], 'at': [149, 316], 'as': [151, 386], 'means': [153], 'help': [155, 203], 'subject': [158], 'act': [159], 'rather': [160], 'than': [161], 'merely': [162], 'understand,': [163], 'one': [164, 331], 'could': [165], 'gauge': [166], 'scope': [168], 'content': [170], 'according': [173], 'goal': [177], 'action': [179], 'they': [180, 268], 'are': [181], 'intended': [182], 'support.From': [184], 'perspective': [186], 'individuals': [188], 'affected': [189], 'by': [190], 'decision-making,': [192], 'we': [193], 'propose': [194], 'three': [195, 292], 'aims': [196], 'for': [197, 350], 'explanations:': [198], '(1)': [199], 'inform': [201], 'individual': [205], 'understand': [206, 229], 'why': [207], 'particular': [209, 282], 'decision': [210, 220, 367], 'was': [211], 'reached,': [212], '(2)': [213], 'provide': [215], 'grounds': [216], 'contest': [218], 'if': [221], 'outcome': [223], 'undesired,': [225], '(3)': [227], 'what': [230], 'would': [231], 'change': [234, 300], 'order': [236], 'receive': [238], 'desired': [240], 'result': [241], 'future,': [244], 'based': [245], 'current': [248, 393], 'model.': [250], 'We': [251, 275], 'assess': [252], 'each': [254], 'these': [256, 291], 'goals': [257], 'finds': [258], 'support': [259, 290], 'GDPR,': [262], 'extent': [265], 'which': [267, 351], "box'.": [274], 'suggest': [276], 'type': [283], 'explanation,': [285], "'unconditional": [286], 'counterfactual': [287, 295, 337, 353], "explanations',": [288], 'aims.': [293], 'These': [294], 'describe': [297, 356], 'smallest': [299], 'world': [303], 'can': [305, 328, 339], 'made': [307], 'obtain': [309], 'desirable': [311, 334], 'outcome,': [312], 'arrive': [315], '"closest': [318], 'possible': [319, 348], 'world."': [320], 'As': [321, 381], 'multiple': [322, 336], 'variables': [323, 327], 'sets': [325], 'lead': [329, 364], 'more': [333], 'outcomes,': [335], 'provided,': [341], 'corresponding': [342], 'different': [344], 'choices': [345], 'nearby': [347], 'worlds': [349], 'holds.': [354], 'Counterfactuals': [355], 'dependency': [358], 'external': [361], 'facts': [362], 'convey': [372], 'internal': [374], 'state': [375], 'logic': [377], 'algorithm.': [380], 'result,': [383], 'counterfactuals': [384], 'serve': [385], 'minimal': [388], 'solution': [389], 'bypasses': [391], 'limitations': [395], 'interpretability,': [397], 'while': [398], 'striking': [399], 'balance': [401], 'between': [402], 'transparency': [403], 'privacy,': [412], 'secrets).': [414]}, 'cited_by_api_url': 'https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W2963125461', 'counts_by_year': [{'year': 2024, 'cited_by_count': 257}, {'year': 2023, 'cited_by_count': 302}, {'year': 2022, 'cited_by_count': 241}, {'year': 2021, 'cited_by_count': 216}, {'year': 2020, 'cited_by_count': 132}, {'year': 2019, 'cited_by_count': 80}, {'year': 2018, 'cited_by_count': 24}, {'year': 2017, 'cited_by_count': 1}], 'updated_date': '2024-12-29T21:28:11.806987', 'created_date': '2019-07-30'}