Get quick answers to your questions about the article from our AI researcher chatbot
{'id': 'https://openalex.org/W2767819002', 'doi': None, 'title': 'Thought Experiments in Scientific Discovery: What Emergent Mental Capabilities Underlie Their Efficacy?', 'display_name': 'Thought Experiments in Scientific Discovery: What Emergent Mental Capabilities Underlie Their Efficacy?', 'publication_year': 2006, 'publication_date': '2006-01-01', 'ids': {'openalex': 'https://openalex.org/W2767819002', 'mag': '2767819002'}, 'language': 'en', 'primary_location': {'is_oa': False, 'landing_page_url': 'https://escholarship.org/content/qt7qc1v46c/qt7qc1v46c.pdf', 'pdf_url': None, 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306523994', 'display_name': 'Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': False, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': True, 'host_organization': None, 'host_organization_name': None, 'host_organization_lineage': [], 'host_organization_lineage_names': [], 'type': 'journal'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': None, 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}, 'type': 'article', 'type_crossref': 'journal-article', 'indexed_in': [], 'open_access': {'is_oa': False, 'oa_status': 'closed', 'oa_url': None, 'any_repository_has_fulltext': False}, 'authorships': [{'author_position': 'first', 'author': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/A5059586170', 'display_name': 'Roger N. Shepard', 'orcid': None}, 'institutions': [], 'countries': [], 'is_corresponding': True, 'raw_author_name': 'Roger N Shepard', 'raw_affiliation_strings': [], 'affiliations': []}], 'institution_assertions': [], 'countries_distinct_count': 0, 'institutions_distinct_count': 0, 'corresponding_author_ids': ['https://openalex.org/A5059586170'], 'corresponding_institution_ids': [], 'apc_list': None, 'apc_paid': None, 'fwci': 0.0, 'has_fulltext': False, 'cited_by_count': 1, 'citation_normalized_percentile': {'value': 0.491469, 'is_in_top_1_percent': False, 'is_in_top_10_percent': False}, 'cited_by_percentile_year': {'min': 61, 'max': 68}, 'biblio': {'volume': '28', 'issue': '28', 'first_page': None, 'last_page': None}, 'is_retracted': False, 'is_paratext': False, 'primary_topic': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T10799', 'display_name': 'Data Visualization and Analytics', 'score': 0.8971, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/1707', 'display_name': 'Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/17', 'display_name': 'Computer Science'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/3', 'display_name': 'Physical Sciences'}}, 'topics': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/T10799', 'display_name': 'Data Visualization and Analytics', 'score': 0.8971, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/1707', 'display_name': 'Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/17', 'display_name': 'Computer Science'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/3', 'display_name': 'Physical Sciences'}}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T10778', 'display_name': 'Philosophy and History of Science', 'score': 0.8745, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/1207', 'display_name': 'History and Philosophy of Science'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/12', 'display_name': 'Arts and Humanities'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/T10072', 'display_name': 'Science Education and Pedagogy', 'score': 0.8654, 'subfield': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/subfields/3304', 'display_name': 'Education'}, 'field': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/fields/33', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}, 'domain': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/domains/2', 'display_name': 'Social Sciences'}}], 'keywords': [], 'concepts': [{'id': 'https://openalex.org/C90734943', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17008777', 'display_name': 'Conceptualization', 'level': 2, 'score': 0.6773194}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C2777855551', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12310021', 'display_name': 'Subject (documents)', 'level': 2, 'score': 0.5365958}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C111472728', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471', 'display_name': 'Epistemology', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.50617856}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C33923547', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395', 'display_name': 'Mathematics', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.42553645}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C33332235', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18362', 'display_name': 'Theoretical physics', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.37060595}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C188147891', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q147638', 'display_name': 'Cognitive science', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.3480234}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C41008148', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198', 'display_name': 'Computer science', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.32521346}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C145420912', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077', 'display_name': 'Mathematics education', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.32079244}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C121332964', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413', 'display_name': 'Physics', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.3089323}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C138885662', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891', 'display_name': 'Philosophy', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.2799915}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C15744967', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418', 'display_name': 'Psychology', 'level': 0, 'score': 0.26469475}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C154945302', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660', 'display_name': 'Artificial intelligence', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.19907874}, {'id': 'https://openalex.org/C161191863', 'wikidata': 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199655', 'display_name': 'Library science', 'level': 1, 'score': 0.0}], 'mesh': [], 'locations_count': 1, 'locations': [{'is_oa': False, 'landing_page_url': 'https://escholarship.org/content/qt7qc1v46c/qt7qc1v46c.pdf', 'pdf_url': None, 'source': {'id': 'https://openalex.org/S4306523994', 'display_name': 'Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society', 'issn_l': None, 'issn': None, 'is_oa': False, 'is_in_doaj': False, 'is_core': True, 'host_organization': None, 'host_organization_name': None, 'host_organization_lineage': [], 'host_organization_lineage_names': [], 'type': 'journal'}, 'license': None, 'license_id': None, 'version': None, 'is_accepted': False, 'is_published': False}], 'best_oa_location': None, 'sustainable_development_goals': [{'display_name': 'Quality education', 'score': 0.66, 'id': 'https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4'}], 'grants': [], 'datasets': [], 'versions': [], 'referenced_works_count': 9, 'referenced_works': ['https://openalex.org/W1989674304', 'https://openalex.org/W2003310689', 'https://openalex.org/W2027796863', 'https://openalex.org/W2029182003', 'https://openalex.org/W2065343501', 'https://openalex.org/W2070504776', 'https://openalex.org/W2134145060', 'https://openalex.org/W2141940861', 'https://openalex.org/W2163233832'], 'related_works': ['https://openalex.org/W76303609', 'https://openalex.org/W2798417804', 'https://openalex.org/W2766612282', 'https://openalex.org/W256582521', 'https://openalex.org/W2559534681', 'https://openalex.org/W2549922645', 'https://openalex.org/W2312801566', 'https://openalex.org/W2185885320', 'https://openalex.org/W2158143791', 'https://openalex.org/W2137079747', 'https://openalex.org/W2099351760', 'https://openalex.org/W2033064807', 'https://openalex.org/W189263300', 'https://openalex.org/W1867698853', 'https://openalex.org/W1712808758', 'https://openalex.org/W153912301', 'https://openalex.org/W1485025625', 'https://openalex.org/W14645885', 'https://openalex.org/W135030854', 'https://openalex.org/W118895429'], 'abstract_inverted_index': {'Thought': [0, 527, 544], 'Experiments': [1], 'in': [2, 79, 84, 114, 146, 157, 160, 237, 241, 279, 281, 299, 314, 323, 327, 359, 483, 489, 506, 512, 555, 715, 721, 732, 758], 'Scientific': [3], 'Discovery:': [4], 'What': [5], 'Emergent': [6], 'Mental': [7, 533], 'Capabilities': [8], 'Underlie': [9], 'their': [10, 373], 'Efficacy?': [11], 'Roger': [12], 'N.': [13], 'Shepard': [14, 655], '([email protected])': [15], 'The': [16, 542, 632], 'Arizona': [17], 'Senior': [18], 'Academy': [19], '13805': [20], 'E.': [21], 'Langtry': [22], 'Lane,': [23], 'Tucson,': [24], 'AZ': [25], '85747': [26], 'USA': [27], 'Abstract': [28], 'measurements,': [29], 'and': [30, 35, 108, 142, 151, 194, 254, 275, 294, 338, 343, 401, 406, 410, 416, 425, 465, 524, 583, 585, 659, 664, 673, 693, 720, 749, 768, 785, 787], 'experiments': [31, 480, 545, 605], 'on': [32, 648, 660, 687, 782, 789], 'physical': [33, 81, 325, 361, 391, 485, 559, 630], 'objects': [34, 95, 171, 182], 'phenomena': [36], 'are': [37, 60, 74, 87, 105, 163, 172, 198, 243, 277, 546], 'generally': [38], 'considered': [39], 'to': [40, 54, 89, 110, 165, 217, 220, 234, 245, 259, 286, 306, 349, 381, 549, 569, 588, 591, 599], 'be': [41, 55, 90, 166, 218, 221, 235, 257, 260, 333, 382, 589, 756], 'essential': [42], 'for': [43, 68, 268, 335, 372, 387, 404, 420, 494], 'the': [44, 47, 80, 91, 103, 167, 175, 184, 192, 202, 231, 307, 310, 324, 330, 336, 341, 347, 360, 388, 396, 431, 438, 484, 490, 509, 556, 629, 665, 688, 704, 733, 744, 759, 777, 790], 'advancement': [45], 'of': [46, 71, 77, 100, 102, 116, 132, 186, 196, 223, 291, 340, 346, 365, 390, 399, 402, 430, 440, 444, 471, 500, 514, 519, 522, 558, 595, 603, 638, 690, 698, 703, 736, 742, 746, 761, 763], 'empirical': [48, 778], 'sciences.': [49], 'But': [50, 159, 297], 'mathematics': [51, 274, 329, 367, 426, 442, 786], 'is': [52, 128, 214, 303, 608, 774], 'supposed': [53, 619], 'concerned': [56], 'with': [57, 353, 628, 643], 'what': [58, 86, 162, 247, 318], 'propositions': [59, 73], 'logically': [61], 'entailed': [62, 261], 'by': [63, 174, 179, 262, 479, 579, 620, 671], 'other': [64], 'propositions,': [65], 'without': [66, 597], 'regard': [67], 'whether': [69], 'any': [70, 97, 602], 'these': [72, 604], 'strictly': [75], 'true': [76], 'anything': [78, 354], 'world.': [82, 362], 'Also,': [83], 'physics,': [85, 596, 781], 'taken': [88, 164], 'elementary': [92, 119, 135, 168, 228], 'or': [93, 169, 188, 191, 211, 240, 251, 271, 316, 321, 357, 384, 443], 'primitive': [94, 170], 'at': [96, 474, 727], 'given': [98], 'stage': [99], 'development': [101, 389], 'field': [104], 'always': [106], 'provisional': [107], 'subject': [109], 'later': [111, 379], 're-': [112], 'conceptualization—often': [113], 'terms': [115], 'still': [117], 'more': [118, 134, 227], 'entities.': [120], 'Thus,': [121], 'water,': [122], 'experienced': [123], 'as': [124, 130, 183, 458, 618], 'a': [125, 147, 212, 287, 301, 435, 495, 552, 771], 'continuous': [126], 'fluid,': [127], 'reconceived': [129], 'composed': [131, 222], 'increasingly': [133], 'entities': [136], 'such': [137, 613], 'as:': [138], 'discrete': [139], 'molecules,': [140], 'electrons': [141], 'protons,': [143], 'quarks,': [144], 'vibrations': [145], 'convoluted': [148], 'high-dimensional': [149], 'manifold,': [150], 'so': [152], 'on—with': [153], 'no': [154], 'clear': [155], 'end': [156], 'sight.': [158], 'mathematics,': [161], 'dictated': [173], 'mathematician': [176], 'rather': [177], 'than': [178], 'nature.': [180], 'Such': [181], 'integers': [185], 'arithmetic': [187], 'number': [189, 238, 269], 'theory': [190, 239, 270], 'points': [193, 253], 'lines': [195, 255], 'geometry': [197, 242], 'completely': [199], 'transparent': [200], 'from': [201, 460, 623], 'outset.': [203], 'We': [204], 'do': [205], 'not': [206, 448, 482], 'suppose': [207], 'that': [208, 309, 368, 468, 571, 586], 'an': [209, 624, 694], 'integer': [210], 'point': [213], 'ever': [215], 'going': [216], 'found': [219, 258, 380], 'some': [224, 564], 'previously': [225, 712], 'unsuspected': [226], 'parts.': [229], 'Instead,': [230], 'advances': [232], 'yet': [233], 'made': [236], 'expected': [244], 'concern': [246], 'relations': [248], 'among': [249, 252], 'numbers': [250], 'will': [256], 'whatever': [263], 'axioms': [264], 'we': [265, 284, 319, 355], 'have': [266, 477, 503, 550, 575, 711], 'formulated': [267], 'geometry.': [272], 'Nevertheless,': [273, 363], 'physics': [276, 300, 424, 446, 472], 'alike': [278], 'that,': [280], 'both': [282], 'cases,': [283], 'aspire': [285], 'consistent': [288], 'theoretical': [289, 445], 'system': [290, 302, 331, 342], 'basic': [292], 'assumptions': [293], 'derivable': [295, 311], 'implications.': [296], 'whereas': [298], 'valued': [304, 334, 371], 'primarily': [305, 686], 'extent': [308, 348], 'implications': [312], 'succeed': [313], 'explaining': [315], 'predicting': [317], 'observe': [320, 356], 'measure': [322, 358], 'world,': [326], 'pure': [328, 366], 'may': [332, 502, 574], 'beauty': [337, 376], 'symmetry': [339, 696, 750], 'its': [344], 'results–independently': [345], 'which': [350], 'they': [351, 453], 'agree': [352], 'results': [364], 'were': [369, 377, 572], 'originally': [370], 'own': [374], 'intrinsic': [375], 'often': [378], 'useful': [383], 'even': [385, 451], 'crucial': [386], 'theory.': [392, 422], 'Notable': [393], 'examples': [394], 'include': [395], 'non-Euclidean': [397], 'geometries': [398], 'Minkowski': [400], 'Riemann': [403], 'special': [405], 'general': [407], 'relativity,': [408], 'respectively,': [409], 'matrix': [411], 'algebra,': [412], 'complex': [413], 'numbers,': [414], 'quaternions,': [415], 'infinite-dimensional': [417], 'Hilbert': [418], 'spaces': [419], 'quantum': [421], 'Moreover,': [423], 'are,': [427], 'alike,': [428], 'creations': [429], 'human': [432], 'mind.': [433, 491], 'Absent': [434], 'comprehending': [436], 'mind,': [437], 'equations': [439], 'either': [441], 'would': [447, 455], 'exist': [449, 456], 'and,': [450], 'if': [452, 616], 'did,': [454], 'only': [457, 488], 'Examples': [459], 'Archimedes,': [461, 580], 'Galileo,': [462, 581], 'Newton,': [463, 582], 'Einstein': [464, 584], 'others': [466], 'suggest': [467], 'fundamental': [469, 593], 'laws': [470, 594], 'were—or,': [473], 'least,': [475], 'could': [476], 'been—discovered': [478], 'performed': [481], 'world': [486], 'but': [487], 'Though': [492], 'problematic': [493], 'strict': [496, 621], 'empiricist,': [497], 'this': [498, 609], 'mode': [499], 'discovery': [501], 'become': [504], 'possible,': [505], 'part,': [507], 'through': [508], 'evolutionary': [510, 640], 'emergence': [511], 'humans': [513], 'deeply': [515], 'internalized': [516], 'implicit': [517], 'knowledge': [518, 614], 'abstract': [520], 'principles': [521, 751], 'transformation': [523], 'symmetry.': [525], 'Keywords:': [526], 'Experiments;': [528], 'Physical': [529], 'Laws;': [530, 538], 'Imagined': [531], 'Transformations;': [532], 'Rotation;': [534], 'Symmetry;': [535], 'Rationality;': [536], 'Moral': [537], 'Determinism;': [539], 'Free': [540], 'Will': [541], 'Problem': [543], 'widely': [547], 'reported': [548], 'played': [551], 'prominent': [553], 'role': [554, 689], 'discoveries': [557], 'laws.': [560], 'I': [561, 634, 684, 706, 710, 739, 752], 'shall': [562, 707], 'describe': [563], 'specific': [565], 'thought': [566], 'experiments,': [567], 'similar': [568], 'those': [570], '(or': [573], 'been)': [576], 'carried': [577], 'out': [578, 601, 637], 'appear': [587], 'sufficient': [590], 'establish': [592], 'having': [598], 'carry': [600], 'physically.': [606], 'How': [607], 'possible?': [610], 'Where': [611], 'does': [612], 'originate': [615], 'not,': [617], 'empiricists,': [622], 'individual’s': [625], 'direct': [626], 'interactions': [627], 'world?': [631], 'answer': [633], 'propose': [635], 'grew': [636], 'my': [639, 644, 722], 'perspective': [641], 'together': [642], 'cognitive': [645, 737], 'psychological': [646], 'researches': [647], 'mental': [649, 691], 'transformations': [650, 692], '(Shepard': [651], '&': [652, 656, 678], 'Cooper,': [653], '1982,': [654], 'Metzler,': [657], '1971)': [658], 'generalization': [661], '(Shepard,': [662], '1987;': [663], 'related': [666], 'far-reaching': [667], 'developments': [668], 'subsequently': [669], 'achieved': [670], 'Tenenbaum': [672, 677], 'his': [674], 'coworkers—': [675], 'e.g.,': [676, 714], 'Griffiths,': [679], '2001a,': [680], '2001b).': [681], 'Here,': [682], 'however,': [683], 'focus': [685], 'associated': [695], 'principle': [697], 'invariance': [699], 'under': [700], 'transformation.': [701], '(Some': [702], 'ideas': [705], 'present': [708], 'here': [709, 754], 'sketched,': [713], 'Shepard,': [716], '1994,': [717], '2001,': [718], '2003,': [719], '1994': [723], 'William': [724], 'James': [725], 'Lectures': [726], 'Harvard.)': [728], 'For': [729], 'readers': [730], 'engaged': [731], 'computational': [734], 'modeling': [735, 760], 'processes,': [738], 'invite': [740], 'consideration': [741], 'how': [743], 'kinds': [745], 'transformational': [747], 'processes': [748, 762], 'consider': [753], 'might': [755], 'implemented': [757], 'scientific': [764], 'discovery.': [765], 'Empirical': [766], 'Science': [767], 'Mathematics': [769], 'Traditionally,': [770], 'sharp': [772], 'distinction': [773], 'maintained': [775], 'between': [776], 'sciences': [779], 'including': [780], 'one': [783], 'hand,': [784], 'logic,': [788], 'other.': [791], 'Observations,': [792]}, 'cited_by_api_url': 'https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W2767819002', 'counts_by_year': [], 'updated_date': '2024-12-09T05:32:50.532472', 'created_date': '2017-11-17'}