Title: The Propriety of Confucius: A Sense-of-Ritual
Abstract: Abstract In the philosophy of Confucius, the concept li is both central and elusive. While it is often translated 'ritual' or 'the rites,' I argue that there are numerous significant ways in which li is as much an internal property of individuals as it is an external set of rules or norms. I discuss li as deference, as developed dispositions, as embodied intelligence, and as personalized exemplary conduct. Finally, reflecting on the work of Fingarette, and Hall and Ames, as well as Wilson's analysis of their work, I argue that the external aspect of li, although reasonably understood under the rubric of 'traditional norms,' may nonetheless legitimately evolve, and that this coheres well with the notion that an internal sense-of-ritual is integral to the meaning of li. Notes Notes [1] This can be thought of as part of zhengming 正名, the 'rectification of names.' Confucius's disciples were so confused about the meaning of ren 仁, that they asked about it repeatedly. It is widely held that Confucius modified the meaning of junzi 君子, which had meant 'prince,' literally the son of a lord, to mean something more like 'exemplary person.' He changed it from a political category to a moral one. Henry Rosemont makes the same claim, about other terms. He writes 'Confucius appropriated all of these terms [shi 士, junzi 君子, sheng聖] for his own use, giving them connotations and denotations that shifted their sense and reference away from position, rank, birth, or function toward what we (not he) would term aesthetic, moral, and spiritual characteristics' (Rosemont, 2001 Rosemont Jr, H. 2001. Rationality and religious experience: The continuing relevance of the world's spiritual traditions, Chicago, IL: Open Court. [Google Scholar], p. 83). Shi goes from meaning 'retainer, servant, knight' to meaning something like 'scholar official' or 'moral apprentice.' Similarly, Huang Chun-chieh maintains, 'The word translated as meaning 'duke' is gong [公]. Confucius changed the meaning of this word from 'rulership' to 'public,' that is, people at large' (Huang, 1993 Huang, Chun-chieh. 1993. 'Rightness' (i) versus 'profit' (li) in ancient China: The polemics between Mencius and Yang Chu, Mo Tzu, and Hsün Tzu. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Part C: Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(1): 59–72. [Google Scholar], p. 62). [2] See Analects 19.12 for an example of two disciples expressing different interpretations of what is most basic in Confucius's teachings. Although the character li does not occur in this passage, tasks and activities that would fall under that heading are central to the dispute. [3] However, Confucius does explicitly advocate examining oneself internally. See Analects 4.17, cf. 5.27 and 17.12. [4] Mencius explicitly argues that not only is ren (the virtue of benevolent service to others) internal, but that yi (appropriateness, sense-of-appropriateness) is also (Mencius 6A4). One argument is called the 'one root' argument (Mencius 3A5), and applies with equal force to li—if li is not also internal then there must be two roots of morality, which Mencius takes to be absurd. Thus, Mencius would have to conclude that li is also internal, but this should be of no surprise. Since the sprout of li is one of the 'four sprouts' from which, Mencius argued, the four cardinal Confucian virtues grow, it follows that li has an internal source, at least. [5] Translations are my own unless otherwise indicated. [6] At the lowest level, the common people regard material possessions and nurturing their own life as virtue (de). This level is prior to the development of ritual propriety. As for the next level, determined officer-aspirants (shi), 'Their conduct is a model of extreme steadfastness, not letting selfish desires confuse what they have been taught.' At the third level, exemplary people, in addition to steadfastness, 'they are fond of cultivating themselves according to what they have been taught, thereby raising and adorning their emotional nature.' The final level is that of a sage. This level is characterized not only by great accomplishments and abilities, but also effortlessness. They are settled-and-secure (gu 固) as well as spirit-like (shen 神) (Xunzi 22/8/57–59 [references to the Chinese text for the Xunzi are to this concordance in the following format: page/chapter/line number]; cf. Knoblock, 1990 Knoblock, J. 1988, 1990, 1994. Xunzi: A translation and study of the complete works, Vol. 3, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], section 8.7 [references to Knoblock are given by section number, rather than page number]). [7] Yue 約 means to bind with rope, to restrain, but it also means simple and concise. In this case, 'binding' may be thought of as a metaphor for keeping something organized. In addition, since it also means 'agreed upon,' it suggests some degree of conventionality, as well as the acquiescence of the participants. [8] Hereafter, references to the Analects are given simply by the passage number. [9] Arthur Waley sometimes even uses 'prescriptions of ritual' for li (see his translation of Analects 8.2). A. C. Graham translates li as 'ceremony' (Graham, 1989 Graham, AC. 1989. Disputers of the Tao: philosophical argument in ancient China, La Salle, IL: Open Court. [Google Scholar], p. 11). Brooks and Brooks (1998 Brooks, EB and Brooks, AT. 1998. The original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and his successors, New York: Columbia University Press. [Google Scholar]), on the other hand, more aptly render it as 'courtesy, ritual propriety' and sometimes simply as 'propriety' (as in 12.1 where fei li is also well rendered as 'improper'). Roger Ames and Henry Rosemont regularly translate li as 'ritual propriety.' [10] D. C. Lau's interpretation is more complex. One the one hand, he also uses the language of 'rules' when describing li: 'The rites (li) were a body of rules governing action in every aspect of life and they were the repository of past insights into morality …. The rites are a code of rules of behaviour' (Lau, 1979 Lau, DC. 1979. Confucius: The Analects, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], pp. 20, 49). On the other hand, in his translation, there are times when Lau renders li as 'the spirit of the rites' (8.2 and 17.24). This phrase better captures Confucius's revision of li, not just in a couple passages, but more generally. [11] Similarly, Ames and Rosemont explain, 'Li are those meaning-invested roles, relationships, and institutions which facilitate communication, and which foster a sense of community …. They are a social grammar that provides each member with a defined place and status within the family, community, and polity. Li are life forms transmitted from generation to generation as repositories of meaning, enabling the youth to appropriate persisting values and to make them appropriate to their own situations' (Ames & Rosemont, 1998 Ames, RT and Rosemont, H Jr. 1998. The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation, New York: Ballantine Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 51). [12] D. Howard Smith is explicit about the externality of li. He writes, 'Li came to represent all those external observances of morality which were considered to be binding on all gentlemen, that is, the manners and ceremonial of polite society, but it also included the regulations of government' (Smith, 1973 Smith, DH. 1973. Confucius, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. [Google Scholar], p. 73). [13] Ebrey does admit, 'Although Confucius spoke of conformity to li, he expected it to be tempered by reason and custom. Not every detail had to be exactly as in the prescriptions' (Ebrey, 1991 Ebrey, PB. 1991. Confucianism and family rituals in imperial China: A social history of writings about rites, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 18). However, this seems to conflict with her strict interpretation of Analects 12.1 ('don't move if not li'), discussed below. [14] This formulation was suggested by annonmous reviewer, and it fits with the Master's rebuke of his disciple, Zilu, in another context: 'With respect to that which he is ignorant, the exemplary person (junzi 君子) defers' (13.3). [15] It was standard practice for Confucius to insist that his students draw conclusions beyond what they were explicitly told. Explaining that he would not teach those who were not struggling to learn for themselves, Confucius remarks, 'If I present one corner [of a square] and they do not use it to respond with the other three, I will not instruct them again' (7.8). See also Analects 1.15. [16] This is characteristic of Confucius's teasing, which is especially noteworthy in this chapter. See especially Analects 5.4, 5.7, and 5.20, as well as 11.3, 11.19 and 11.26. [17] On D. C. Lau's translation, the last sentence reads: 'If he hurries and stumbles one may be sure that it is in benevolence [ren] that he does so' (Lau, 1979 Lau, DC. 1979. Confucius: The Analects, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 72). This reading of the passage would exemplify my point even better. [18] Similarly, in the opening passage of Xunzi's Zhengming, Xunzi advocates following the Yin, the Zhou, and terms fixed by ritual usage, for legal terms, terms of rank, and ceremonial terms respectively. Further, Xunzi described Confucius as follows: 'Confucius was ren 仁 and wise, and moreover was not obsessed. His study of an eclectic variety of doctrines and arts is sufficient to rank him among the former kings. [Appropriating them into] a single school, he achieved an encompassing way. He promoted it, and put it to use, without being obsessed by old customs' (Xunzi 79/21/26–27; cf. Knoblock, 1994 Knoblock, J. 1988, 1990, 1994. Xunzi: A translation and study of the complete works, Vol. 3, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], section 21.4). [19] According to Slingerland, Confucius's mission was to 'bring about a restoration of the lost Golden Age' (Slingerland, 2003 Slingerland, E. (2003). Confucius: Analects. Indianapolis, IA: Hackett. [Google Scholar], p. xxii), for this 'rebuilding [of] the lost Golden Age' would restore the Way of Heaven (Slingerland, 2001 Slingerland, E. 2001. "Kongzi (Confucius): "The Analects". In Readings in classical Chinese philosophy, 2nd, Edited by: Ivanhoe, PJ and Van Norden, BW. Indianapolis, IA: Hackett. [Google Scholar], p. 2). [20] Xunzi had a low view of the Zizhuang school of Confucianism that developed after the death of Confucius. According to Xunzi, they would parade around making much show, but having little substance underneath (see Ames & Rosemont, 1998 Ames, RT and Rosemont, H Jr. 1998. The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation, New York: Ballantine Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 267, n. 328). [21] Cf. 'Exemplary persons regard appropriateness (yi) as their basic character, put it into practice with a sense-of-ritual, expresses it with modesty, and complete it with trustworthiness (xin)' (15.18). Citing this passage, JeeLoo Liu notes, 'the observance of propriety has to come from an internal moral sense' (Liu, 2006 Liu, J. 2006. An introduction to Chinese philosophy: From ancient philosophy to Chinese Buddhism, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. [Google Scholar], p. 59). Cf. 13.4, which also places li parallel to appropriateness and trustworthiness. See also 1.13. Notice li is grouped with two virtues. Similarly, in the Mencius, li is grouped with ren (benevolence), yi (a sense of appropriateness), and zhi (wisdom), which grow naturally from the innate dispositions toward compassion, a sense of shame, and the propensity to make moral evaluation; while li grows out of a sense-of-deference (Mencius 2A6). [22] Zizhuang, who seems to have learned the lesson, approves of scholar officials who 'in the face of danger put there lives on the line; in the face of gain think of what is appropriate; regarding sacrifices ponder reverence; and, in mourning ponder grief' (19.1). This is reminiscent of Confucius's remark about the root of li: 'In ritual, modesty is preferable to extravagance. In mourning, sorrow is preferable to taking it too lightly (yi 易)' (3.4; cf. 19.14). The character (yi 易) typically means 'change,' or 'easy.' Presumably by extension from 'easy,' it can also mean 'to slight.' Ames and Rosemont gloss it as 'worrying over the formal details' (Ames & Rosemont, 1998 Ames, RT and Rosemont, H Jr. 1998. The Analects of Confucius: A philosophical translation, New York: Ballantine Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 83). In addition, in Analects 5.25, Confucius says that he, personally, finds 'perfunctory gestures of respect' shameful (Slingerland's translation). In addition, Confucius elsewhere remarks, 'Exemplary persons have integrity, but are not sticklers' (15.37). [23] Commenting on this passage, Xunzi writes, 'If it is not timely and fitting, if it is not respectfully sociable, if it is not cheerfully enjoyed, although it may be beautiful, it is not li' (Xunzi 96/27/9-10; cf. Knoblock, 1994 Knoblock, J. 1988, 1990, 1994. Xunzi: A translation and study of the complete works, Vol. 3, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], section 27.11). [24] Shun later adds, '… the kind of emotional dispositions and attitudes associated with li have also broadened to include not just the attitude of indebtedness and reverence toward ancestors, but also various emotional dispositions and attitudes (such as respect for elders) directed toward other people with whom one's relations are governed by traditional norms' (Shun, 2002 Shun, K. (2002). Ren and Li in the Analects. In B. W. Van Norden (Ed.), Confucius and the Analects: new essays. New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar], p. 67). [25] The same can be said of the Mencius. See 2A6 and 6A6. [26] Using language as an example, Anthony Giddens explains how recursivity works: 'When I utter a grammatical sentence, I draw upon various syntactical rules of the English language in order to do so, but the very drawing upon those rules helps reproduce them as structural properties of English as recursively involved with the linguistic practices of the community of English language speakers. The moment (not in a temporal sense) of the production of the speech act at the same time contributes to the reproduction of the structural qualities that generated it. It is very important to see that 'reproduction' here does not imply homology: the potential for change is built into every moment of social reproduction (as a contingent phenomenon)' (Giddens, 1981 Giddens, A. 1981. "Agency, institution, and time-space analysis". In Advances in social theory and methodology, Edited by: Knorr-Cetina, K and Cicourel, AV. Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [Google Scholar], pp. 171–172). [27] Lai addresses music at some length in this article (Lai, 2006 Lai, K. (2006). Li in the Analects: training in moral competence and the question of flexibility. Philosophy East and West, 56, 69–83. [Google Scholar], pp. 71–72, 76), as well as in another article dedicated to the topic. See Lai (2003 Lai, K. 2003. "Confucian moral cultivation: Some parallels with musical training". In The moral circle and the self, Edited by: Chong, Kim-chong, Tan, Sor-hoon and Ten, CL. Chicago, IL: Open Court. [Google Scholar]). [28] Confucius also says, 'If one does not understand li, one will lack the means to take a stand' (20.3). If taking a stand implies not just personal commitment but individual judgment, this passage suggests that it is li that allows one to exercise individual judgments effectively. [29] For more on Confucius's position on self-reliance in learning, see Analects 5.9, 7.8, 9.8, 9.11 and 15.28. [30] Along the same lines, Kwong-loi Shun makes the point that personal assessment of the situation is implicit in li conduct even when one does not depart from established convention. He writes, 'A person with li is not only skilled in and disposed to follow the rules of li but is also prepared to depart from such rules when appropriate. This preparedness involves the operation of yi, and commitment to propriety. Even when a rule of li should be followed, yi still has a role to play in that one should ideally follow the rule with an awareness of its appropriateness to the situation and, in that sense, make the observance of the rule not a mechanical action but a display of one's own assessment of the situation' (Shun, 1997 Shun, K. 1997. Mencius and early Chinese thought, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 65, emphasis added). [31] Confucius certainly makes no assumption of a Platonic realm of true principles that a person of yi recognizes. As Huang Chung-chieh puts it, 'In China, yi has never been a universal rule of conduct eternally fixed in the cognitive heavens, but instead has always been a matter of flexible judgment rendered to make ourselves fit for ever-changing situations' (Huang, 1993 Huang, Chun-chieh. 1993. 'Rightness' (i) versus 'profit' (li) in ancient China: The polemics between Mencius and Yang Chu, Mo Tzu, and Hsün Tzu. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Part C: Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(1): 59–72. [Google Scholar], p. 60). [32] Similarly, Catherine Bell writes, 'Acting ritually is first and foremost a matter of nuanced contrasts and the evocation of strategic, value-laden distinctions' (Bell, p. 90). [33] Slingerland agrees. He writes, 'Here, [Zigong's] fastidious adherence to the rites leads Confucius to dub him a "sacrificial vessel" of limited capacity' (Slingerland, 2003 Slingerland, E. (2003). Confucius: Analects. Indianapolis, IA: Hackett. [Google Scholar], p. 40). [34] The passage could also simply reflect Confucius's modesty, and thus not to be taken literally. [35] Ivanhoe continues, 'What he does do is appropriate and propagate traditional patterns of behavior and apply them to solve the challenges of his day. He is flexible and creative in his application of traditional norms, but he never challenges these norms themselves' (Ivanhoe, 1991 Ivanhoe, PJ. 1991. Review of thinking through Confucius, by D. L. Hall and R. T. Ames. Philosophy East and West, 41(2): 341–354. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p. 244). However, although Confucius does not 'challenge' traditional norms, through creative application, norms are influenced. The influence may be subtle, but that does not mean that it is unimportant. [36] Confucius also approved of a suggestion that seems to be unconnected with an existing rite, but could well become one: 'On a spring evening, after the spring cloths are completed, with five or six young men, and six or seven boys, I would go bathe in the Yi river, enjoy the breeze on the Rain Alter, and sing all the way home' (11.26). [37] The heroes in question are: Bo Yi, Shu Qi, Yu Zhong, Yi Yi, Zhu Zhang, Liu Xiahui, and Shao Lian.
Publication Year: 2010
Publication Date: 2010-03-01
Language: en
Type: article
Indexed In: ['crossref']
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