Abstract: Abstract Civilian police have become such a sought-after commodity for use in peace support operations that the phrase 'international police peacekeeping' is now in common usage in the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The nomenclature is, however, rather misleading, as police personnel may now be tasked with peace enforcement and peacebuilding tasks in addition to more traditional peacekeeping roles. Police personnel bring new capabilities and skill sets to bear in peace operations, and operational difficulties regarding quantity, quality and standardization are beginning to be addressed. However, concerns over the relevance of current policing models to post-conflict settings suggest that future international policing efforts would benefit from a closer consideration of how to balance the demands of international and local policing norms. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Time to write this article was funded by the Royal New Zealand Society Marsden Fund as part of the 'Building Sustainable Peace in the South Pacific' project, led by Professor Jacob Bercovitch, University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand. For a book-length exposition of some of the ideas presented in this article see B.K. Greener, The New International Policing, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2009. Notes David H. Bayley, Democratizing the Police Abroad: What to do and How to do it, Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, 2001, p.4. Monthly Summary of Military and Police Contribution to United Nations Operations (at: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/documents/Yearly06.pdf). Council of the European Union, Table: 'ESDP Civilian, Police and Military Operations (at: www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/ESDPoperations.jpg). Bayley (see n.1 above), pp.3–4. William Lewis, Edward Marks and Robert Perito, 'Enhancing International Civilian Police in Peace Operations', special report, US Institute for Peace, Washington, DC, 22 April 2002, p.3. The implementation of a US Civilian Reserve Corps concept with three tiers was approved in 2007. The first tier was to consist of 100–150 current employees (Active Reserve Corps deployable in 24 hours); the second was to see the creation of 1,000 new jobs (Standby Reserve Corps deployable in 60 days); and the third (initially 500, then up to 4,000 in a Civil Response Corps) was to involve personnel who were not necessarily police officers but involved in rule of law institutions in some respect. The initiative was stalled in Congress, though appeared to be moving again in late 2010. ICITAP appears to have been pushed out of post-conflict policing as the US State Department moved to take on such responsibilities. Robert Perito, 'US Police in Peace and Stability Operations', USIP Special Report 191, Aug. 2007, pp.2–3. Bill Clinton's Presidential Decision Directive 71 (PDD-71) of February 2000 was formulated to try to improve American participation in international policing. For an outline of this earlier PDD and the difficulties faced in implementing it see Bayley (n.1 above); Lewis et al. (n.5 above). Further commentary is also to be found in Robert Perito, Where is the Lone Ranger When we Need Him? America's Search for a Post Conflict Stability Force, Washington, DC: US Institute for Peace, 2004, pp.278–80. Personal communication with the IDG and the ISG. See also AFP, 'International and Domestic Deployments List' (at: www.afp.gov.au/policing/international-deployment-group/deployments.aspx). IPAC, 'Summary Meeting Report of the Second Meeting of the International Policing Advisory Council', Abuja, 22–23 Jan. 2007, p.6. 'China to Build Asia's Largest UN Police Training Center', Peoples Daily Online (at: http://english1.people.com.cn/200208/20/print20020820_101732.html). For more details on the growth of Chinese involvement in UN peace missions (police and military), see Pang Zhongying, 'China's Changing Attitude to UN Peacekeeping', International Peacekeeping, Vol.12, No.1, 2005, pp.87–104. The Chinese People's Armed Police had deployed 177 officers to UN missions as of October 2007, and in 2006 30 officers were sent for training courses overseas: Loro Horta, 'From Red to Blue: China and Peacekeeping', Australian Army Journal, Vol.5, 2008, p.107. In September 2010 there were 63 Chinese People's Armed Police (PAP), 50 military experts and 1,822 troops on UN deployments (at: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2010/sept10_1.pdf). On the brutality and political basis of policing under the Nationalist Republican Alliance or Alianza Republicana Nacionalista (ARENA) government, see Ellen Moodie, El Salvador in the Aftermath of Peace: Crime, Uncertainty and the Transition to Democracy, Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010. Leif Ahlquist, Berndt Brehmer and Petra Buxud, '"Frictions" in the Command and Control of UN Peace Support Operations', in Peter Essens, Ad Vogelaar, Erhan Tanercan and Donna Winslow (eds), The Human in Command: Peace Support Operations, Breda: KMA Royal Netherlands Academy, 2001, p.150. As argued by Michael Emery, UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, and Erwin A. Schmidl, Austrian Ministry of Defence, in papers presented at the 'Police Functions in Peace Operations' UN workshop, 10 May 1996, cited in 'Police Are Critical to the Peace Process', PeaceWatch (at: www.usip.org/peacewatch/1996/696/Police.htm). Halvor Hartz, 'CIVPOL: The UN Instrument for Police Reform', in Tor Tanke Holm and Espen Barth Eide (eds), Peacebuilding and Police Reform, London: Frank Cass, 2000, p.31. Joshua G. Smith, Victoria K. Holt and William J. Durch, 'From Timor-Leste to Darfur: New Initiatives for Enhancing UN Civilian Policing Capacity', issue brief, Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, DC, Aug. 2007. Ban Ki-Moon, 'Message from Ban Ki-Moon', UN Police Magazine, June 2007, p.1. Graham Day and Christopher Freeman, 'Policekeeping is the Key: Rebuilding the Internal Security Architecture of Post-War Iraq', International Affairs, Vol.79, No.2, 2003, pp.299–313. See David Bayley and Robert Perito, Policing in War: Fighting Insurgency, Terrorism and Violent Crime, Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2010. See Sinclair Dinnen, Abby McLeod, and Gordon Peake, 'Police-Building in Weak States: Australian Approaches in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands', in Gordon Peake, Eric Sheye and Alice Hills (eds), Managing Insecurity: Field Experiences of Security Sector Reform, London: Routledge, 2008, pp.1–22. Russell Glenn, Counterinsurgency in a Test Tube; Analyzing the Success of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI), Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2007; Michael Fullilove, 'The Testament of Solomons: RAMSI and International State-Building', analysis paper, Lowy Institute, Sydney, March 2006. Dinnen et al. (see n.18 above); Tarcisius Tara Kabutaulaka, 'Australian Foreign Policy and the RAMSI Intervention in Solomon Islands', Contemporary Pacific, Vol.17, No.2, 2005, p.301; Matthew Allen and Sinclair Dinnen, 'The North Down Under: Antimonies of Conflict and Intervention in Solomon Islands', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol.10, No.3, 2010, pp.317–19. Abby McLeod, 'Police Capacity Development in the Pacific: The Challenge of Local Context', Policing and Society, Vol.19, No.2, 2009, pp.147–60. For example, despite the fact that 'police development' was intended to be a major part of the UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) and the UN Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET), in the former none of the 1,270 officers was recruited to be a trainer or institution-building expert, while in the latter none of the 150 police advisers had development or capacity-building expertise. Ludovic Hood, 'Missed Opportunities: The United Nations, Police Service and Defence Force Development in Timor-Leste, 1999–2004', Civil Wars, Vol.8, No.2, 2006, pp.146,149. Problems with quality control were amply demonstrated by private contractor difficulties in Iraq and Afghanistan, while Kosovo and Timor Leste have demonstrated some of the problems with UN policing. For Kosovo see William G. O'Neill, Kosovo: 'An Unfinished Peace', Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002, pp.99–101; Ekrem Krasniqi, 'UN Kosovo Police Arrested for Sex Trafficking', International Relations and Security Network, Zurich (at: www.isn.ethz.ch/news/sw/details.cfm?ID=12681). On Timor Leste, see Hood (n.22 above); Human Rights Watch, 'East Timor: Human Rights Developments', World Report 2000 (at: www.hrw.org/wr2k1/asia/etimor.html). Similar critiques can be found in Ian Martin and Alexander Mayer-Rieckh, 'The United Nations and East Timor: From Self-Determination to State-Building', International Peacekeeping, Vol.12, No.1, 2005, p.134. Michael Dziedzic and Christine Stark, 'Bridging the Security Gap: The Role of the Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units (CoESPU) in Contemporary Peace Operations', briefing paper, USIP, Washington, DC, June 2006 (at: www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0616_coespu.html). Ibid. Annika S. Hansen, From Congo to Kosovo: Civilian Police in Peace Operations, Oxford: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2002, pp.70–72; Alice Hills, 'The Inherent Limits of Military Forces in Policing Peace Operations', International Peacekeeping, Vol.8, No.3, 2001, pp.92ff. For an explicit examination of police versus military roles in one particular situation see B.K. Greener, 'Crossing the Green or Blue Line? Exploring the Military–Police Divide', Small Wars and Insurgencies, Vol.18, No.1, March 2007, pp.90–112. Jeff Penrose, 'Peace Support Operations and Policing: An Explosive Human Skills Mix', in Essens et al. (see n.11 above), p.120. See John McFarlane and William Maley, 'Civilian Police in UN Peace Operations: Some Lessons from Recent Australian Experience', in Ramesh Thakur and Albert Schnabel (eds), United Nations Peacekeeping Operations; Ad Hoc Missions, Permanent Engagement, Tokyo: UN University Press, 2001, pp.182–211. McFarlane further expanded on these points in discussions with the author in 2006 and 2007. This point was made by NATO personnel in discussions in November 2007. Otwin Marenin, Restoring Policing Systems in Conflict Torn Nations: Process, Problems, Prospects, Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2005, p.39. John Darby and Roger MacGinty, Contemporary Peacemaking: Conflict, Violence and Peace Processes, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2003, p.213. Oliver P Richmond, 'UN Peace Operations and the Dilemmas of the Peacebuilding Consensus', International Peacekeeping, Vol.11, No.1, 2004, pp.90, 95. UN Police Division, 'Top Contributing Countries December 2009', UN Police Magazine, Jan. 2009, p.10. 'UN Peacekeeping Training Standards for Pre-deployment Training of UN Police Officers', UNDPKO, 2009 (at: http://peacekeepingresourcehub.unlb.org); UN Police Division, 'UN Reform in Progress', UN Police Magazine, Jan. 2010, p.17. See, e.g., Kristoffer Lidén, Roger Mac Ginty and Oliver P. Richmond (eds), 'Liberal Peacebuilding Reconstructed', special issue of International Peacekeeping, Vol.16, No.5, 2009. Bruce Baker, 'Policing Post Conflict Societies: Helping out the State', Policing and Society, Vol.19, No.4, 2009, p.329. Dinnen et al. (see n.18 above). Volker Boege, Anne Brown, Kevin Clements and Anna Nolan, 'Building Peace and Political Community in Hybrid Political Orders', International Peacekeeping, Vol.16, No.5, 2009, pp.599–615. See Gordon Peake, 'Understanding International Police Organisations: What the Researchers Do Not See', Journal of International Peacekeeping, Vol.14, Nos.3–4, 2010, pp.425–45.
Publication Year: 2011
Publication Date: 2011-04-01
Language: en
Type: article
Indexed In: ['crossref']
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Cited By Count: 54
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