Title: The Paradox of Independence: The Maintenance of Influence and the French Decision to Transfer Power in Morocco
Abstract: Abstract This article examines the reason why France granted independence to Morocco in the autumn of 1955, in comparison to Tunisian decolonisation. Morocco had been much less prepared for independence than Tunisia and many other British colonies in Africa, including Ghana, which were equipped with stable political institutions and local collaborators, but the country nonetheless gained independence earlier than they did. Paradoxically, the lack of collaborators, resulting from internal rivalries between the nationalists and dignitaries like the pashas, explains France's hasty recognition of Moroccan independence. By doing so, France aimed to make Mohammed V, the Moroccan Sultan, a viable collaborator and to preserve political unity under his leadership and French influence. Acknowledgements I was indebted to the Central Research Fund of the University of London for my archival research in Paris. Notes 1. Clayton, The Wars. 2. Betts, France and Decolonisation, 78–79. 3. Mortimer, France and the Africans. 4. Julien, L'Afrique du Nord; Bernard, Franco-Moroccan Conflict. 5. El-Machat, Les Etats-Unis et le Maroc and many other of her works; Bessis, 'L'Opposition France-États-Unis'. For Algerian affairs, Thomas, The French North African Crisis; Thomas, 'Defending a Lost Cause?'; Lacroix-Riz, Les Protectorats; Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution. 6. Ansprenger, The Dissolution. 7. Catroux's, The French Union, portrays the Union's structure. Mortimer, France and the Africans, also provides useful information on the Union. 8. Kent, The Internationalization, 171. 9. Part of this paper is based on sections in my Japanese article 'Furansu to Morokko Dokuritsu' (France and the Independence of Morocco). The Hitotsubashi Journal of Law and International Studies 6, no. 1 (2007). 10. In contrast, Tunisia already had a government in a modern sense, headed by a Tunisian prime minister. 11. Maxwell, Lords, 139–43. 12. National Intelligence Estimate, 31 Aug. 1954, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1952–1954, XI, 159. 13. Mortimer, France and the Africans, 51. 14. Ansprenger, The Dissolution, 209. 15. Mohammed V refused because the Union would make direct access to the UN impossible for Morocco. Vincent to the State Department, Despatch no.512, 27 March 1952, US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Record Group (RG) 59, Central Decimal File (CDF) 651.71/3-2752. 16. Note, 14 Jan. 1950, Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (MAE), Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 380. 17. Bourguiba, Ma Vie, 301–02. 18. Memorandum for the National Security Council Senior Staff, 12 Sept. 1952, FRUS, 1952-1954, XI, 135. 19. National Intelligence Estimate, 31 Aug. 1954, ibid., 157, 20. Bonsal to Acheson, no.2124, 19 Oct.1950, FRUS, 1950, V, 1752. 21. Circular no.18, 15 March 1951, MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 67; Rabat to Paris, Résumé de l'audience du 26 janvier 1951, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 76. 22. Paris to Rabat, Circular no.18, 15 March 1951, MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 68. 23. Note, no.110, 10 Nov. 1951, MAE, Cabinet du Ministre, Schuman vol. 97. 24. Referring to Black African affairs, Kent points out: 'The Cold War continued to demand that every effort should be made to woo African leaders without a fundamental rupture in American relations with their European allies.' Kent, 'United States and Decolonization', 183–84. 25. Note pour le Ministre, 31 July 1951, MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 646. 26. Situation Politique au Maroc (mars 1953), MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 86. 27. Dorman to Washington, no. 289, 18 Feb. 1953, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/2-1853. 28. Bernard, Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 167. 29. Dillon to the State Department, no.672, 20 Aug. 1953, FRUS, 1952–1954, XI, 621–22; Dillon to the State Department, no. 695, 21 Aug. 1953, ibid., 622–24. 30. L'Année Politique, 1954, 180. 31. Ansprenger, Dissolution, 236. 32. For details, Ikeda, 'French Policy towards Tunisia and Morocco', ch. 4. 33. Tunis to Paris, no.172/176, 4 March 1954, MAE, Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 389. 34. Note pour le Ministre, 26 June 1954, ibid. This marked a dramatic change of French policy towards Tunisia, because France had hitherto legitimised its rule through the traditional authority of the Bey. For further details, Ikeda, 'French Policy towards Tunisia and Morocco', 120–29. 35. Note pour le Ministre, 16 July 1954, MAE, Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 389. 36. L'Année Politique, 1954, 252. 37. Lacoste to Mendès-France, no. 192, 30 July 1954, DDF, 1954, doc. 23. 38. He resigned because of his loyalty to Mohammed V. 39. Lacoste to Fouchet, no. 110 (1 to 5, 7), 12 Jan. 1955, DDF, 1955, I, doc. 26. 40. Izard, 'Le "Secret" d'Antsirabé'. 41. DDF, 1954, doc.386, 795, fn. 1. 42. Situation politique au Maroc (Février 1955), MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 91. 43. L'Année Politique, 1955, 222. Bourguiba had been expelled in January 1952. 44. Latour to Paris, no.1211/1222, 29 April 1955, MAE, Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 393. 45. The Algerian situation so deteriorated that the French National Assembly passed an act declaring a state of emergency on 31 March 1955. 46. Lacoste to July, no.1517/1-2, 14 May 1955, DDF, 1955, I, doc. 280. 47. Ibid., doc.343, 779, fn. 1. 48. An FO minute noted: 'This "immobilisme" on the part of successive French Governments has reflected a basic unconcern on the part of the French men in the street….Now, however, that decisions have been taken in [Indo-China and the EDC], the men in the street and the political parties have had time to turn their attention to the problems of North Africa'. Ramsden Minute, 2 Aug. 1955, FO 371/113806, JF1072/10(b), National Archives, Kew (NA). 49. July to Faure, 12 July 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 27. 50. Grandval to July, no.2601/2645, 2 Aug. 1955, ibid., doc. 76. In his plan, a new Sultan would be established after two years' absence. 51. Tangier to Dulles, no.36, 26 July 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 651.71A/7-2655. 52. Pinay to diplomatic representatives, circular no.62, 9 Aug. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 98. 53. Paris to the State Department, no.526, 4 Aug. 1955, FRUS, 1955–1957, XVIII, doc. 28. 54. Paris to the State Department, no.489, 2 Aug. 1955, ibid., doc. 182. 55. Paris to FO, no.290, 4 Aug. 1955, FO 371/113806, JF1072/11. 56. El-Machat contends: 'Une chose est cependant aquise, définitivement aquise: l'appui des Etats-Unis n'est jamais certaine' in August 1955. El-Machat, Les Etats-Unis et le Maroc, 122. 57. Faure, Mémoires II, 391–92. 58. Paris to Dulles, no.419, 28 July 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/7-2855. Georges Bidault was among them. 59. DDF, 1955, II, doc. 129, 296, fn. 2. 60. Ibid., doc. 131, 302, fn. 2. In Oued-Zem, forty-nine Europeans were massacred. 61. Note, Conversations franco-marocaines d'Aix-les-Bains, 27 Aug. 1955, ibid., doc. 144. 62. L'Année Politique, 1955, 263. 63. Le Monde, 31 Aug. 1955. 64. Instructions to Latour, 30 Aug. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 150; Grandval to July, no.33/42, 23 Aug. 1955, MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 3. 65. Instructions to Catroux and Yrissou, 1 Sept. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 157. 66. Latour to July, no. 3174/3177, 6 Sept. 1955, ibid., doc. 171. 67. Teitgen to Soucadaux, no.162/166, 8 Sept. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 185. 68. Soucadaux to Teitgen, 9 Sept. 1955, ibid., doc. 188. 69. Soucadaux to Teitgen, no.347/352, 9 Sept. 1955, ibid., doc. 190. 70. Ibid. 71. This sense of crisis had already been shared among some leading politicians in 1954. L'Année Politique, 1954, 297. 72. Kent, The Internationalization, 306–07; De Benoist, L'Afrique Occidentale Française, 162–63. 73. Conversation between the Secretary of State and Holmes on October 6 1955, FO 371/113806, JF1072/18, NA. An American diplomat noted: 'M. Faure's Aix proposals … were at once torpedoed by members of his own Cabinet who had telephoned to their friends in Morocco.' 74. Panafieu to July, no.3290/3291, 20 Sept. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 227. 75. Latour to July, no.3297/3302, 22 Sept. 1955, ibid., doc. 235. 76. July to Latour, no.1331/1334, 23 Sept. 1955, ibid., doc. 237. 77. Dillon to Dulles, no.1445, 29 Sept. 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/9-2955. 78. L'Année Politique, 1955, 273–75, 283–84. 79. For Arab neutralism, see Brands, The Specter, Ch. 6 80. Allen to Tangier, no.201, 29 Sept. 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/9-2955. 81. DDF, 1955, II, doc. 275, 617, fn. 2. 82. This was organised in the Rif by Moroccan nationalists and was operating in liaison with Algerian nationalists. Le Tourneau, Évolution Politique, 245. 83. Boyer de Latour, Vérités, 173. 84. DDF, 1955, II, doc. 271, 610, fn. 1. 85. Le Monde, 6 Oct. 1955. 86. Ibid., 7 Oct. 1955. 87. L'Année Politique, 1955, 285. 88. DDF, 1955, II, doc. 332, 739, fn. 1. 89. Le Monde, 9/10 Oct. 1955. 90. Ibid., 9/10 Oct. 1955. 91. L'Année Politique, 1955, 293. 92. Seydoux to Paris, no.3270/3279, 13 Oct. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 295. 93. Williams to Bromley, no.1446/601/102, 17 Oct. 1955, FO 371/113792, JF1016/93. 94. L'Année Politique, 1955, 293–94. 95. July to Latour, no.1200/1203, 10 Sept. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 196. 96. L'Année Politique, 1955, 271. 97. Réunion du samedi 17 septembre chez M. July, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 223. 98. Bernard, Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 328–29. 99. Note of Ministry for Moroccan and Tunisian Affairs, 25 Oct. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 332. 100. L'Année Politique, 1955, 288–89. 101. Rabat to Ministry for Moroccan and Tunisian Affairs, no.3644/3655, 26 Oct. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 334; ibid., doc. 334, 744, fn. 1. 102. Le Monde, 28 Oct. 1955; Rabat to Dulles, no.191, 3 Nov. 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/11-355. 103. Note du MAE, 31 Oct. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 342. 104. Ibid., doc. 369, 817, fn. 4. 105. Hereafter I will use the term 'close link' as a translation of 'interdépendance'. 106. Bernard's book asserts that the reference to Morocco's independent status was merely Faure's lack of discretion. Bernard, Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 336. El-Machat's book simply points out that at this moment 'Pierre July prend conscience…de l'importance du mouvement d'indépendance incarné par l'Istiqlal' but fails to analyse its reasons. El-Machat, Les Etats-Unis et le Maroc, 144. 107. Rabat to Dulles, no.191, 3 Nov. 1955, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/11-355. 108. Note de la Direction générale des Affaires marocaines et tunisiennes, 9 Nov. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 353. 109. Seydoux to Paris, no.3658/3662, 3 Nov. 1955, MAE, Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 379. 110. Le Monde, 9 Nov. 1955. 111. Situation politique au Maroc (novembre 1955), MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 92. 112. L'Année Politique, 1955, 302. 113. Le Monde, 23 Nov. 1955. 114. Pinay to La Tournelle, no.958/963, 17 Nov. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 369. 115. Situation Politique (novembre 1955), MAE, Maroc 1950–1955. 116. The French National Assembly was dissolved on 2 December 1955. 117. Le Monde suggests that the date of the party's acceptance was probably on 28 November. Le Monde, 29 Nov. 1955; Situation politique (novembre 1955), MAE, Maroc 1950–1955, vol. 92. 118. Pinay to Dubois, no.2094/2100, 2 Dec. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 404. 119. Dillon to Dulles, no.3594, 10 Feb. 1956, NARA, RG59, CDF, 771.00/2-1056. 120. Note de la Direction général des Affaires marocaines et tunisiennes, 18 Feb. 1956, DDF, 1956, I, doc. 11; Comptes rendus des négociations franco-tunisiennes, ibid., doc. 167. 121. Note du Secretaire general du Departement, 2 March 1956, ibid., doc. 136. 122. Dillon to Dulles, no.4004, 3.3.1956, NARA, RG59, CDF, 651.71/3-356. 123. Dubois to Savary, no.762/771, 19 March 1956, DDF, 1956, II, doc. 187. 124. The French had already predicted this in February 1956. Note, 2 Feb. 1956, MAE, Tunisie 1956–1969, vol. 108. 125. Ibid., Situation Politique en Tunisie (mars 1956); L'Année Politique, 1956, 196. 126. Dubois to Savary, no.1101/1109, 12 April 1956, DDF, 1956, II, doc. 236. 127. For instance, the Spanish announced their opposition to Morocco's independence on 27 October, two days after el-Glaoui's turnaround. La Tournelle to Pinay, no.503/504, 27 Oct. 1955, DDF, 1955, II, doc. 335. 128. Hargreaves, Decolonization, 122–31. 129. Chamberlain, European Decolonisation, ch. 2, provides a chronological explanation of British policy in Ghana and other territories. 130. Betts, France and Decolonisation, ch. 6. 131. Ageron, Modern Algeria, ch. 9, 10. 132. For example, as early as December 1955, the Tunisian government announced its decision to organise the elections for a constituent assembly, which would be convened in April 1956. Seydoux to Paris, no. 4541/4542, 28 Dec. 1955, MAE, Tunisie 1944–1955, vol. 379. 133. Bourret, Ghana, 196. 134. Hargreaves, Decolonization, 166–67.
Publication Year: 2007
Publication Date: 2007-12-01
Language: en
Type: article
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