Abstract: Reviews of GeophysicsVolume 38, Issue 2 p. 191-219 Free Access Volcanic eruptions and climate Correction(s) for this article Correction to “Volcanic eruptions and climate” Alan Robock, Volume 45Issue 3Reviews of Geophysics First Published online: September 11, 2007 Alan Robock, Alan RobockSearch for more papers by this author Alan Robock, Alan RobockSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 May 2000 https://doi.org/10.1029/1998RG000054Citations: 1,750AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Abstract Volcanic eruptions are an important natural cause of climate change on many timescales. A new capability to predict the climatic response to a large tropical eruption for the succeeding 2 years will prove valuable to society. In addition, to detect and attribute anthropogenic influences on climate, including effects of greenhouse gases, aerosols, and ozone-depleting chemicals, it is crucial to quantify the natural fluctuations so as to separate them from anthropogenic fluctuations in the climate record. Studying the responses of climate to volcanic eruptions also helps us to better understand important radiative and dynamical processes that respond in the climate system to both natural and anthropogenic forcings. Furthermore, modeling the effects of volcanic eruptions helps us to improve climate models that are needed to study anthropogenic effects. Large volcanic eruptions inject sulfur gases into the stratosphere, which convert to sulfate aerosols with an e-folding residence time of about 1 year. Large ash particles fall out much quicker. The radiative and chemical effects of this aerosol cloud produce responses in the climate system. By scattering some solar radiation back to space, the aerosols cool the surface, but by absorbing both solar and terrestrial radiation, the aerosol layer heats the stratosphere. For a tropical eruption this heating is larger in the tropics than in the high latitudes, producing an enhanced pole-to-equator temperature gradient, especially in winter. In the Northern Hemisphere winter this enhanced gradient produces a stronger polar vortex, and this stronger jet stream produces a characteristic stationary wave pattern of tropospheric circulation, resulting in winter warming of Northern Hemisphere continents. This indirect advective effect on temperature is stronger than the radiative cooling effect that dominates at lower latitudes and in the summer. The volcanic aerosols also serve as surfaces for heterogeneous chemical reactions that destroy stratospheric ozone, which lowers ultraviolet absorption and reduces the radiative heating in the lower stratosphere, but the net effect is still heating. Because this chemical effect depends on the presence of anthropogenic chlorine, it has only become important in recent decades. For a few days after an eruption the amplitude of the diurnal cycle of surface air temperature is reduced under the cloud. On a much longer timescale, volcanic effects played a large role in interdecadal climate change of the Little Ice Age. There is no perfect index of past volcanism, but more ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica will improve the record. There is no evidence that volcanic eruptions produce El Niño events, but the climatic effects of El Niño and volcanic eruptions must be separated to understand the climatic response to each. References Ahn, M. H., A new SO2 retrieval algorithm using total ozone mapping spectrometer radiance and its applications, Ph.D. dissertation, 192 pp.,Dep. of Meteorol., Univ. of Md.,College Park,1997. Andronova, N. G., E. V. Rozanov, F. Yang, M. E. Schlesinger, G. L. Stenchikov, Radiative forcing by volcanic aerosols from 1850 to 1994, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16807–16826, 1999. Angell, J. K., Impact of El Niño on the delineation of tropospheric cooling due to volcanic eruptions, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 3697–3704, 1988. Angell, J. K., Estimated impact of Agung, El Chichón, and Pinatubo volcanic eruptions on global and regional total ozone after adjustment for the QBO, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 647–650, 1997a. Angell, J. K., Stratospheric warming due to Agung, El Chichón, and Pinatubo taking into account the quasi-biennial oscillation, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 9479–9485, 1997b. Asaturov, M. L., M. I. Budyko, K. Y. Vinnikov, P. Y. Groisman, A. S. Kabanov, I. L. Karol, M. P. Kolomeev, Z. I. Pivovarova, E. V. Rozanov, S. Khmelevtsov, Volcanics, Stratospheric Aerosol and Earth's Climate, in Russian, 256, Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg, Russia, 1986. Barkstrom, B. R., The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 65, 1170–1185, 1984. Barnes, J. E., D. J. Hoffman, Lidar measurements of stratospheric aerosol over Mauna Loa Observatory, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1923–1926, 1997. Bekki, S., J. A. Pyle, D. M. Pyle, The role of microphysical and chemical processes in prolonging the climate forcing of the Toba eruption, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2669–2672, 1996. Bluth, G. J. S., S. D. Doiron, S. C. Schnetzler, A. J. Krueger, L. S. Walter, Global tracking of the SO2 clouds from the June 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruptions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 151–154, 1992. Bradley, R. S., The explosive volcanic eruption signal in Northern Hemisphere continental temperature records, Clim. Change, 12, 221–243, 1988. Bryson, R. A., G. J. Dittberner, A non-equilibrium model of the hemisphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2094–2106, 1976. Coffey, M. T., Observations of the impact of volcanic activity on stratospheric chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 6767–6780, 1996. Crowley, T. J., K.-Y. Kim, Modeling the temperature response to forced climate change over the last six centuries, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1901–1904, 1999. Crutzen, P. J., The possible importance of CSO for the sulfate layer of the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 3, 73–76, 1976. D'Arrigo, R. D., G. C. Jacoby, M. Free, A. Robock, Northern Hemisphere temperature variability for the past three centuries: Tree-ring and model estimates, Clim. Change, 42, 663–675, 1999. Dutton, E. G., A coherence between the QBO and the amplitude of the Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission annual cycle, Int. J. Climatol., 12, 383–396, 1992. Dutton, E. G., J. R. Christy, Solar radiative forcing at selected locations and evidence for global lower tropospheric cooling following the eruption of El Chichón and Pinatubo, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 2313–2316, 1992. Dutton, E. G., J. J. DeLuisi, A. P. Austring, Interpretation of Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission relative to aerosols, using photometric precipitable water amounts, J. Atmos. Chem., 3, 53–68, 1985. Ellsaesser, H. W., Isolating the climatologic effects of volcanoesRep. UCRL-89161, 29Lawrence Livermore Natl. Lab., Livermore, Calif., 1983. Forsyth, P. Y., In the wake of Etna, 44 B.C., Classical Antiq., 7, 49–57, 1988. Franklin, B., Meteorological imaginations and conjectures,Manchr. Lit. Philos. Soc. Mem. Proc., 2, 122,1784. (Reprinted in Weatherwise, 35, 262, 1982.). Free, M., A. Robock, Global warming in the context of the Little Ice Age, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 19057–19070, 1999. Gates, W. L., AMIP: The Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 73, 1962–1970, 1992. Genin, A., B. Lazar, S. Brenner, Vertical mixing and coral death in the Red Sea following the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Nature, 377, 507–510, 1995. Gilliland, R. L., Solar, volcanic, and CO2 forcing of recent climatic changes, Clim. Change, 4, 111–131, 1982. Gilliland, R. L., S. H. Schneider, Volcanic, CO2, and solar forcing of Northern and Southern Hemisphere surface temperatures, Nature, 310, 38–41, 1984. Graf, H.-F., I. Kirchner, A. Robock, I. Schult, Pinatubo eruption winter climate effects: Model versus observations, Clim. Dyn., 9, 81–93, 1993. Graf, H.-F., J. Perlwitz, I. Kirchner, I. Schult, On the inter-relationship between recent climate trends, ozone change and increased greenhouse gas forcing, Atmospheric Ozone As a Climate Gas W. C. Wang, I. S. A. Isaksen, 163–179, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1995. Graf, H.-F., J. Feichter, B. Langmann, Volcanic sulfur emission: Estimates of source strength and its contribution to the global sulfate distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 10727–10738, 1997. Grant, W. B., Tropical stratospheric ozone changes following the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, The Mount Pinatubo Eruption Effects on the Atmosphere and Climate, NATO ASI Ser., Ser. I, 42, 161–175, 1996. Grant, W. B., et al., Observations of reduced ozone concentrations in the tropical atmosphere after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1109–1112, 1992. Grattan, J., M. Brayshay, J. Sadler, Modelling the distal impacts of past volcanic gas emissions: Evidence of Europewide environmental impacts from gases emitted during the eruption of Italian and Icelandic volcanoes in 1783, Quaternaire, 9, 25–35, 1998. Groisman, P. Y., Regional climate consequences of volcanic eruptions, in Russian, Meteorol. Hydrol., 4, 39–45, 1985. Groisman, P. Y., Possible regional climate consequences of the Pinatubo eruption: An empirical approach, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1603–1606, 1992. Haigh, J., The impact of solar variability on climate, Science, 272, 981–984, 1996. Halpert, M. S., C. F. Ropelewski, Surface temperature patterns associated with the Southern Oscillation, J. Clim., 5, 577–593, 1992. Handler, P., Possible association between the climatic effects of stratospheric aerosols and sea surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, J. Climatol., 6, 31–41, 1986. Hansen, J. E., W.-C. Wang, A. A. Lacis, Mount Agung provides a test of a global climatic perturbation, Science, 199, 1065–1068, 1978. Hansen, J., I. Fung, A. Lacis, D. Rind, S. Lebedeff, R. Ruedy, G. Russell, P. Stone, Global climate changes as forecast by the Goddard Institute for Space Studies three-dimensional model, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 9341–9364, 1988. Hansen, J., A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, M. Sato, Potential climate impact of Mount Pinatubo eruption, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 215–218, 1992. Hansen, J., et al., A Pinatubo climate modeling investigation, The Mount Pinatubo Eruption Effects on the Atmosphere and Climate, NATO ASI Ser., Ser. I, 42, 233–272, 1996. , ), The Year Without a Summer? World Climate in 1816 C. R. Harington, 576, Can. Mus. of Nature, Ottawa, Ont., Canada, 1992. Harshvardhan, Perturbations of the zonal radiation balance by a stratospheric aerosol layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1274–1285, 1979. Hirono, M., On the trigger of El Niño-Southern Oscillation by the forcing of early El Chichón volcanic aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 5365–5384, 1988. Holton, J. R., P. H. Haynes, M. E. McIntyre, A. R. Douglass, R. B. Rood, L. Pfister, Stratosphere-troposphere exchange, Rev. Geophys., 33, 403–439, 1995. , )Climate Change 1995--The Science of Climate Change J. T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, K. Maskell, 584, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996. Humphreys, W. J., Volcanic dust and other factors in the production of climatic changes, and their possible relation to ice gases, 131–172J. Franklin Inst.Aug., 1913. Humphreys, W. J., Physics of the Air, 676, Dover, Mineola, N. Y., 1940. Hunt, B. G., A simulation of the possible consequences of a volcanic eruption on the general circulation of the atmosphere, Mon. Weather Rev., 105, 247–260, 1977. Hurrell, J. W., Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: Regional temperatures and precipitation, Science, 269, 676–679, 1995. Hurrell, J. W., H. vanLoon, Decadal variations in climate associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation, Clim. Change, 36, 301–326, 1997. Kalnay, E., et al., The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 437–471, 1996. Keen, R. A., Volcanic aerosols and lunar eclipses, Science, 222, 1011–1013, 1983. Kelly, P. M., C. B. Sear, The formulation of Lamb's dust veil index, Atmospheric Effects and Potential Climatic Impact of the 1980 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens A. Deepak, NASA Conf. Publ., 2240, 293–298, 1982. Kelly, P. M., P. D. Jones, A. Robock, K. R. Briffa, The contribution of Hubert H. Lamb to the study of volcanic effects on climate, Weather, 53, 209–222, 1998. Kinne, S., O. B. Toon, M. J. Prather, Buffering of stratospheric circulation by changing amounts of tropical ozone: A Pinatubo case study, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1927–1930, 1992. Kirchner, I., H.-F. Graf, Volcanos and El Niño: Signal separation in Northern Hemisphere winter, Clim. Dyn., 11, 341–358, 1995. Kirchner, I., G. L. Stenchikov, H.-F. Graf, A. Robock, J. C. Antuña, Climate model simulation of winter warming and summer cooling following the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 19039–19055, 1999. Kitoh, A., H. Koide, K. Kodera, S. Yukimoto, A. Noda, Interannual variability in the stratospheric-tropospheric circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 543–546, 1996. Kodera, K., Influence of volcanic eruptions on the troposphere through stratospheric dynamical processes in the Northern Hemisphere winter, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 1273–1282, 1994. Kodera, K., M. Chiba, K. Shibata, A general circulation model study of the solar and QBO modulation of the stratospheric circulation during the Northern Hemisphere winter, Geophys. Res. Lett., 18, 1209–1212, 1991. Kodera, K., M. Chiba, H. Koide, A. Kitoh, Y. Nikaidou, Interannual variability of the winter stratosphere and troposphere in the Northern Hemisphere, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 74, 365–382, 1996. Kondratyev, K. Y., Volcanoes and climateWCP-54, WMO/ TD-166, 103World Meteorol. Org., Geneva, 1988. Kondratyev, K. Y., I. Galindo, Volcanic Activity and Climate, 382, A. Deepak, Hampton, Va., 1997. Krueger, A. J., C. C. Schnetzler, L. S. Walter, The December 1981 eruption of Nyamuragira Volcano (Zaire) and the origin of the “mystery cloud” of early 1982, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 15191–15196, 1996. Labitzke, K., H. vanLoon, Association between the 11-year solar cycle, the QBO, and the atmosphere, part I, The troposphere and the stratosphere in the Northern Hemisphere in winter, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 50, 197–207, 1988. Lamb, H. H., Volcanic dust in the atmosphere, with a chronology and assessment of its meteorological significance, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 266, 425–533, 1970. Lamb, H. H., Supplementary volcanic dust veil index assessments, Clim. Monit., 6, 57–67, 1977. Lamb, H. H., Update of the chronology of assessments of the volcanic dust veil index, Clim. Monit., 12, 79–90, 1983. Li, X. S., A. Berger, Simulating climatic impact of the Toba eruption with the LLN 2-D climate modelSci. Rep. 1997/14Inst. d'Astron. et de Geophys. G. Lemaitre, Univ. Cath. de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, 1997. Lough, J. M., H. C. Fritts, An assessment of the possible effects of volcanic eruptions on North American climate using tree-ring data, 1602 to 1900 A.D., Clim. Change, 10, 219–239, 1987. Luhr, J. F., I. S. E. Carmichael, J. C. Varekamp, The 1982 eruptions of El Chichón volcano, Chiapas, Mexico: Mineralogy and petrology of the anhydrite-bearing pumices, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 23, 69–108, 1984. MacCracken, M. C., F. M. Luther, Preliminary estimate of the radiative and climatic effects of the El Chichon eruption, Geofis. Int., 23, 385–401, 1984. Mao, J., A. Robock, Surface air temperature simulations by AMIP general circulation models: Volcanic and ENSO signals and systematic errors, J. Clim., 11, 1538–1552, 1998. Marcus, S. L., Y. Chao, J. O. Dickey, P. Gegout, Detection and modeling of nontidal oceanic effects on Earth's rotation rate, Science, 281, 1656–1659, 1998. Mass, C. F., D. A. Portman, Major volcanic eruptions and climate: A critical evaluation, J. Clim., 2, 566–593, 1989. Mass, C., A. Robock, The short-term influence of the Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption on surface temperature in the northwest United States, Mon. Weather Rev., 110, 614–622, 1982. McIntyre, M. E., How well do we understand the dynamics of stratospheric warmings?, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 60, 37–65, 1982. Miles, M. K., P. B. Gildersleeves, Volcanic dust and changes in Northern Hemisphere temperature, Nature, 271, 735–736, 1978. Minnis, P., E. F. Harrison, L. L. Stowe, G. G. Gison, F. M. Denn, D. R. Doelling, W. L. Smith Jr., Radiative climate forcing by the Mount Pinatubo eruption, Science, 259, 1411–1415, 1993. Mitchell Jr., J. M., Recent secular changes of the global temperature, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 95, 235–250, 1961. Mitchell Jr., J. M., A preliminary evaluation of atmospheric pollution as a cause of the global temperature fluctuation of the past century, Global Effects of Environmental Pollution S. F. Singer, 139–155, D. Reidel, Norwell, Mass., 1970. Mohnen, V. A., Stratospheric ion and aerosol chemistry and possible links with cirrus cloud microphysics--A critical assessment, J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1933–1948, 1990. Newhall, C. G., S. Self, The volcanic explosivity index (VEI): An estimate of explosive magnitude for historical volcanism, J. Geophys. Res., 87, 1231–1238, 1982. Nicholls, N., Low latitude volcanic eruptions and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, J. Climatol., 8, 91–95, 1988. Oliver, R. C., On the response of hemispheric mean temperature to stratospheric dust: An empirical approach, J. Appl. Meteorol., 15, 933–950, 1976. Parker, D. E., J. K. L. Brownscombe, Stratospheric warming following the El Chichón volcanic eruption, Nature, 301, 406–408, 1983. Pawson, S., et al., The GCM-Reality Intercomparison Project for SPARC (GRIPS): Scientific issues and initial results, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 81, 781–796, 2000. Perlwitz, J., H.-F. Graf, The statistical connection between tropospheric and stratospheric circulation of the Northern Hemisphere in winter, J. Clim., 8, 2281–2295, 1995. Pinto, J. P., R. P. Turco, O. B. Toon, Self-limiting physical and chemical effects in volcanic eruption clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 11165–11174, 1989. Pollack, J. B., O. B. Toon, C. Sagan, A. Summers, B. Baldwin, W. Van Camp, Volcanic explosions and climatic change: A theoretical assessment, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 1071–1083, 1976. Pollack, J. B., D. Rind, A. Lacis, J. E. Hansen, M. Sato, R. Ruedy, GCM simulation of volcanic aerosol forcing, part I, Climate changes induced by steady-state perturbations, J. Clim., 6, 1719–1742, 1993. Quiroz, R. S., The isolation of stratospheric temperature change due to the El Chichón volcanic eruption from non-volcanic signals, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 6773–6780, 1983. Ramaswamy, V., M. D. Schwarzkopf, W. J. Rel, Fingerprint of ozone depletion in the spatial and temporal pattern of recent lower-stratospheric cooling, Nature, 382, 616–618, 1996. Rampino, M. R., S. Self, Sulphur-rich volcanic eruptions and stratospheric aerosols, Nature, 310, 677–679, 1984. Rampino, M. R., S. Self, Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption, Nature, 359, 50–52, 1992. Rampino, M. R., S. Self, R. W. Fairbridge, Can climatic change cause volcanic eruptions?, Science, 206, 826–828, 1979. Rind, D., N. K. Balachandran, R. Suozzo, Climate change and the middle atmosphere, part II, The impact of volcanic aerosols, J. Clim., 5, 189–208, 1992. Robock, A., Internally and externally caused climate change, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1111–1122, 1978. Robock, A., The “Little Ice Age”: Northern Hemisphere average observations and model calculations, Science, 206, 1402–1404, 1979. Robock, A., The Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption of 18 May 1980: Minimal climatic effect, Science, 212, 1383–1384, 1981a. Robock, A., A latitudinally dependent volcanic dust veil index, and its effect on climate simulations, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 11, 67–80, 1981b. Robock, A., The dust cloud of the century, Nature, 301, 373–374, 1983a. Robock, A., Ice and snow feedbacks and the latitudinal and seasonal distribution of climate sensitivity, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 986–997, 1983b. Robock, A., Review of Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, the Year Without a Summer, Natl. Weather Dig., 9, 5–6, 1984a. Robock, A., Climate model simulations of the effects of the El Chichón eruption, Geofis. Int., 23, 403–414, 1984b. Robock, A., Snow and ice feedbacks prolong effects of nuclear winter, Nature, 310, 667–670, 1984c. Robock, A., Volcanoes and climate, Climate and Geosciences: A Challenge for Science and Society in the 21st Century, NATO ASI Ser., Ser. C, 285, 309–314, 1989. Robock, A., The volcanic contribution to climate change of the past 100 years, Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climatic Change: A Critical Appraisal of Simulations and Observations M. E. Schlesinger, 429–444, Elsevier Sci., New York, 1991. Robock, A., Review of Year Without a Summer? World Climate in 1816, Clim. Change, 26, 105–108, 1994. Robock, A., Stratospheric control of climate, Science, 272, 972–973, 1996a. Robock, A., Nuclear winter, Encyclopedia of Weather and Climate, 2 S. H. Schneider, 534–536, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1996b. Robock, A., M. P. Free, Ice cores as an index of global volcanism from 1850 to the present, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11549–11567, 1995. Robock, A., M. P. Free, The volcanic record in ice cores for the past 2000 years, Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years P. D. Jones, R. S. Bradley, J. Jouzel, 533–546, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996. Robock, A., Y. Liu, The volcanic signal in Goddard Institute for Space Studies three-dimensional model simulations, J. Clim., 7, 44–55, 1994. Robock, A., J. Mao, Winter warming from large volcanic eruptions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 2405–2408, 1992. Robock, A., J. Mao, The volcanic signal in surface temperature observations, J. Clim., 8, 1086–1103, 1995. Robock, A., C. Mass, The Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption of 18 May 1980: Large short-term surface temperature effects, Science, 216, 628–630, 1982. Robock, A., M. Matson, Circumglobal transport of the El Chichón volcanic dust cloud, Science, 221, 195–197, 1983. Robock, A., K. E. Taylor, G. L. Stenchikov, Y. Liu, GCM evaluation of a mechanism for El Niño triggering by the El Chichón ash cloud, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 2369–2372, 1995. Roeckner, E., K. Arpe, L. Bengtsson, M. Christoph, M. Claussen, L. Duemenil, M. Ecsh, M. Giogetta, U. Schlese, U. Schulzweida, The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM4: Model description and simulation of present-day climate, Rep. 218, 90Max-Planck-Inst. für Meteorol., Hamburg, Germany, 1996. Ropelewski, C. F., P. D. Jones, An extension of the Tahiti-Darwin Southern Oscillation Index, Mon. Weather Rev., 115, 2161–2165, 1987. Rosenfield, J., D. Considine, P. Meade, J. Bacmeister, C. Jackman, M. Schoeberl, Stratospheric effects of Mount Pinatubo aerosol studied with a coupled two-dimensional model, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 3649–3670, 1997. Russell, P. B., et al., Global to microscale evolution of the Pinatubo volcanic aerosol derived from diverse measurements and analyses, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 18745–18763, 1996. Sapper, K., Beitrage zur Geographie der tatingen Vulkane, Z. Vulkanol., 3, 65–197, 1917. Sapper, K., Vulkankunde, Englehorn Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany, 1927. Sassen, K., D. O. Starr, G. G. Mace, M. R. Poellot, S. H. Melfi, W. L. Eberhard, J. D. Spinhirne, E. W. Eloranta, D. E. Hagen, J. Hallett, The 5–6 December 1991 FIRE IFO II jet stream cirrus case study: Possible influences of volcanic aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 97–123, 1995. Sato, M., J. E. Hansen, M. P. McCormick, J. B. Pollack, Stratospheric aerosol optical depths, 1850–1990, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 22987–22994, 1993. Schatten, K. H., H. G. Mayr, I. Harris, H. A. Taylor, A zonally symmetric model for volcanic influence upon atmospheric circulation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 11, 303–306, 1984. Schneider, S. H., C. Mass, Volcanic dust, sunspots and temperature trends, Science, 190, 741–746, 1975. Self, S., M. R. Rampino, J. Zhao, M. G. Katz, Volcanic aerosol perturbations and strong El Nino events: No general correlation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1247–1250, 1997. Shelley, M., Frankenstein,Bantam Books,New York,1818. (Classic edition, 209 pp., Bantam Books, New York, 1981.). Shindell, D., D. Rind, N. Balachandran, J. Lean, P. Lonergan, Solar cycle variability, ozone, and climate, Science, 284, 305–308, 1999. Simarski, L. T., Volcanism and climate change, special report, 27, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1992. Simkin, T., R. S. Fiske, Krakatau 1883: The Volcanic Eruption and Its Effects, 464, Smithson. Inst., Washington, D. C., 1983. Simkin, T., L. Siebert, Volcanoes of the World 2, 349, Geoscience Press, Tucson, Ariz., 1994. Simkin, T., L. Siebert, L. McClelland, D. Bridge, C. G. Newhall, J. H. Latter, Volcanoes of the World, 232, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1981. Solomon, S., Stratospheric ozone depletion: A review of concepts and history, Rev. Geophys., 37, 275–316, 1999. Solomon, S., R. W. Portmann, R. R. Garcia, L. W. Thomason, L. R. Poole, M. P. McCormick, The role of aerosol variations in anthropogenic ozone depletion at northern midlatitudes, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 6713–6727, 1996. Spencer, R. W., J. R. Christy, N. C. Grody, Global atmospheric temperature monitoring with satellite microwave measurements: Method and results 1979–1984, J. Clim., 3, 1111–1128, 1990. Stenchikov, G. L., I. Kirchner, A. Robock, H.-F. Graf, J. C. Antuña, R. G. Grainger, A. Lambert, L. Thomason, Radiative forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13837–13857, 1998. Stommel, H., E. Stommel, Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, the Year Without a Summer, 177, Seven Seas Press, Newport, R. I., 1983. Stothers, R. B., The great Tambora eruption in 1815 and its aftermath, Science, 224, 1191–1198, 1984. Stowe, L. L., R. M. Carey, P. P. Pellegrino, Monitoring the Mount Pinatubo aerosol layer with NOAA 11 AVHRR data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 159–162, 1992. Strong, A. E., Monitoring El Chichón aerosol distribution using NOAA-7 satellite AVHRR sea surface temperature observations, Geofis. Int., 23, 129–141, 1984. Strong, A. E., The effect of El Chichón on the 82/83 El Niño (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU, 6744, 880, 1986. , The Eruption of Krakatoa, and Subsequent Phenomena G. J. Symons, 494, Trübner, London, 1888. Tabazadeh, A., R. P. Turco, Stratospheric chlorine injection by volcanic eruptions: HCl scavenging and implication for ozone, Science, 260, 1082–1086, 1993. Thompson, D. W. J., J. M. Wallace, The Arctic Oscillation signature in the wintertime geopotential height and temperature fields, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1297–1300, 1998. Thompson, D. W. J., J. M. Wallace, Annular modes in the extratropical circulation, part I, Month-to-month variability, J. Clim., 13, 1000–1016, 2000a. Thompson, D. W. J., J. M. Wallace, G. C. Hegerl, Annular modes in the extratropical circulation, part II, Trends, J. Clim., 13, 1018–1036, 2000b. Tie, X., G. Brasseur, The response of the stratospheric ozone to volcanic eruptions: Sensitivity to atmospheric chlorine loading, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 3035–3038, 1995. Tie, X., G. P. Brasseur, C. Granier, A. De Rudder, N. Larsen, Model study of polar stratospheric clouds and their effect on stratospheric ozone, 2, Model results, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 12,575–12,584, 1996. Toon, O. B., Volcanoes and climate, Atmospheric Effects and Potential Climatic Impact of the 1980 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens A. Deepak, NASA Conf. Publ., 2240, 15–36, 1982. Toon, O. B., J. B. Pollack, Atmospheric aerosols and climate, Am. Sci., 68, 268–278, 1980. Trepte, C. R., M. H. Hitchman, Tropical stratospheric circulation deduced from satellite aerosol data, Nature, 355, 626–628, 1992. Trepte, C. R., R. E. Veiga, M. P. McCormick, The poleward dispersal of Mount Pinatubo volcanic aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18563–18573, 1993. Turco, R. P., O. B. Toon, T. P. Ackerman, J. B. Pollack, C. Sagan, Nuclear winter: Global consequences of multiple nuclear explosions, Science, 222, 1283–1292, 1983. Turco, R. P., O. B. Toon, T. P. Ackerman, J. B. Pollack, C. Sagan, Nuclear winter: Climate and smoke: An appraisal of nuclear winter, Science, 247, 166–176, 1990. vanLoon, H., K. Labitzke, Association between the 11-year solar cycle, the QBO and the atmosphere, part IV, The stratosphere, not grouped by the phase of the QBO, J. Clim., 3, 827–837, 1990. Vinnikov, K. Y., A. Robock, R. J. Stouffer, S. Manabe, Vertical patterns of free and forced climate variations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1801–1804, 1996. Vogelmann, A. M., T. P. Ackerman, R. P. Turco, Enhancements in biologically effective ultraviolet radiation following volcanic eruptions, Nature, 359, 47–49, 1992. Vupputuri, R. K. R., J. P. Blanchet, The possible effects of the El Chichon eruption on atmospheric thermal and chemical structure and surface climate, Geofis. Int., 23, 433–447, 1984. Wallace, J. M., D. S. Gutzler, Teleconnections in the geopotential height field during the Northern Hemisphere winter, Mon. Weather Rev., 109, 784–812, 1981. Wallace, J. M., Y. Zhang, J. A. Renwick, Dynamic contribution to hemispheric mean temperature trends, Science, 270, 780–783, 1995. Wallace, J. M., Y. Zhang, L. Balik, Interpretation of interdecadal trends in Northern Hemisphere surface air temperature, J. Clim., 9, 249–259, 1996. Yue, G. K., R. E. Veiga, P.-H. Wang, SAGE II observations of a previously unreported stratospheric volcanic aerosol cloud in the northern polar summer of 1980, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 429–432, 1994. Zerefos, C. S., K. Tourpali, A. F. Bais, Further studies on possible volcanic signal to the ozone layer, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 25741–25746, 1994. Zhao, J., R. P. Turco, O. B. Toon, A model simulation of Pinatubo volcanic aerosols in the stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 7315–7328, 1995. Zielinski, G. A., P. A. Mayewski, L. D. Meeker, S. Whitlow, M. S. Twickler, K. Taylor, Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ˜71,000 years ago, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 837–840, 1996. Citing Literature Volume38, Issue2May 2000Pages 191-219 ReferencesRelatedInformation