Title: Rethinking Anti-Immigration Rhetoric after the Oslo and Utøya Terror Attacks
Abstract: Abstract This article examines right-wing populism and populist rhetoric in Norway preceding the July 22, 2011 terror attacks at Utøya and in Oslo. It describes how the mainstream media, academics, and political parties have appealed to the public in an increasingly populist fashion and have spread fear about immigration, immigrants, and integration. It argues that while the populist right-wing Progress Party has adopted immigration and integration as its main cause and has gained support because of it, the Progress Party alone cannot be blamed for the widespread xenophobia in Norway. The media are also responsible for the way immigration, culture, and race have been reported, as are a wide range of politicians for formulating increasingly stricter immigration policies. In the aftermath of July 22 politicians became acutely concerned about their own anti-immigrant rhetoric and how it may have influenced the terrorist Anders Behring Breivik. A broad consensus to address and change the language used in the immigration debate was agreed upon; more openness and more democracy was promised. Much has changed, but even more has stayed the same in Norwegian politics and attitudes to immigration and Islam. Notes 1 See the manifesto at < http://unitednations.ispnw.org/archives/breivik-manifesto-2011.pdf>. 2 For examples of how Muslims were chased in Oslo after the July 22 terror attacks see < http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/22-juli/artikkel.php?artid = 10088913>. 3 See Kristin Clemet, < http://www.clemet.blogg.no/1322680996_22juli_galskap_eller_ .html>; and Shabana Rehman < shttp://www.habanawriter.blogspot.com/…/aldri-mer-fremmed>; < nbno.facebook.com/…/terrorist…/10150267242039833?ref = nf.>. 4 Russell J. Dalton, Scott C. Flanagan, and Paul Allen Beck (eds), Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984). 5 Claudio Castello, "Åpenhet, mangfold og tolerance," Utrop, July 22, 2012, < http://www.utrop.no>. 6 Kamilla Simonnes, "Det klamme fellesskapet," Morgenbladet, July 26, 2012, < http://www.morgenbladet.no/samfunn/2012/det_klamme_fellesskapet>. 7 Pål Hellesnes, "Tilby dem muligheter," Klassekampen, July 19, 2012. 8 Karin Andersen said she could understand people's discomfort. See Marie Simonsen "Ubehaget i parken," Dagbladet, July 14, 2012. 9 Gatemagasinet Folk er Folk 1:2012. 10 Antisemittisme i Norge, < http://www.hlsenteret.no/aktuelt/2012/HL_Rapport_2012_web.pdf>. 11 Jens Rydgren, The Populist Challenge: Political Protest and Ethno-Nationalist Mobilization in France (New York, NY and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2004). 12 Øyvind Strømmen, Det mørke nettet (Oslo: Cappelen, 2011). 13 NTB—[email protected], "Tusenvis i nettprotest mot rosetoget," < http://www.abcnyheter.no/penger/oekonomi/2012/04/28/tusenvis-i-nettprotest-mot-rosetoget?page = 4>. 14 See Paul Hainsworth, The Extreme Right in Western Europe (London and New York, NY: Routledge, 2008). 15 Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 47. 16 For research and case studies on popular right-wing successes see Anniken Hagelund, "The Progress Party and the Problem of Culture: Immigration Politics and Right-wing Populism in Norway," in Jens Rydgren (ed.), Movements of Exclusion: Radical Right-Wing Populism in the Western World (New York, NY: Nova Science Pulishers, 2005), pp.147–164; See also Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds), Democracies and the Populist Challenge (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); Jens Rydgren, From Tax Populism to Ethnic Nationalism: Radical Populism in Sweden (New York, NY and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002). For discussions of ideology of popular right-wing parties see Cas Mudde, The Ideology of the Extreme Right (Manchester and New York, NY: Manchester University Press, 2000); Piero Ignazi, Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003); and Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties. For research on the history of growth of popular right-wing parties see Paul Taggart, The New Populism and the New Politics: New Protest Parties in Sweden in a Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan Press, 1996); Herbert Kitschelt, The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1997); Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties; and Rydgren, The Populist Challenge. 17 Rydgren, The Populist Challenge. 18 Elisabeth Ivarsflaten, "The Vulnerable Populist Right Parties: No Economic Re-Alignment Fuelling Their Electoral Success," European Journal of Political Research 44:3 (2005), pp. 465–492. 19 Magnus Marsdal, Frp-koden (Oslo: Forlaget Manifest, 2007). 20 For a comparative analysis of Nordic populism see Björn Fryklund, "Nordic Populism—Changes Over Time and Space. A Comparative and Retrospective Analysis of Populist Parties in the Nordic Countries from 1965–2012," in Peter Davies and Paul Jackson (eds), The Far Right in Europe—An Encyclopedia (Oxford: Greenwood World Press, 2008). 21 Like the other coalition party, the Socialist Left, the Centre Party gained 6.2% of the vote in the 2009 national elections. The coalition is led by the Labour Party, which gained 32.7% of the vote. See election statistics at < http://www.aardal.info/valgstat.htm>. 22 For an interview where Borten Moe discusses "healthy patriotism" see Håkon Gundersen, "Ola Nordmann," Morgenbladet, February 25–March 3, 2011. For an analysis of Borten Moe's ideas about nationalism see Aslak Bonde, "Godnasjonalismen," Morgenbladet, June 24–30, 2011. 23 Rydgren, The Populist Challenge. 24 Jens Rydgren, "Voting for the Radical Right in the Swedish Municipalities: Social Marginality and Ethnic Competition?," Scandinavian Political Studies 34:3 (2011), pp. 202–225. 25 See < http://www.tradingeconomics.com/norway/unemployment-rate>. 26 Daniel Osch, "Explaining Workers' Support for Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe: Evidence from Austria, Belgium, France, Norway and Switzerland," International Political Science Review 29:3(2008), pp. 349–373. 27 Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties, p. 47. 28 Anniken Haglund, "The Progress Party and the Problem of Culture: Immigration Politics and Right-Wing Populism in Norway," in Jens Rydgren (ed.), Movements of Exclusion: Radical Right-Wing Populism (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2005), pp. 147–164. 29 Magnus E. Marsdal, Frp-koden (Oslo: Forlaget Manifest, 2007). 30 See < http://www.ssb.no/innvbef_en/main.html>. 31 For more election statistics and data, see < http://www.ssb.no/stortingsvalg_en/>. 32 Line Madsen Simenstad, "Frp-nestleder Per Sandberg skyver innvandring til side til fordel for helse, omsorg og skole: Innvandring i andre rekke," Klassekampen, June 7, 2011. 33 See international crime statistics, < http://www.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Crime_statistics>. 34 For a comment from Frank Aarebot see Simenstad, "Frp-nestleder skyver innvandring til side," Klassekampen, June 8, 2011. 35 For more detail see < http://www.nbim.no/no/>. 36 Hainsworth, Extreme Right in Western Europe. 37 Alain Badiou, The Rebirth of History: Times of Riots and Uprisings (London and New York: Verso, 2012), p. 72. 38 Hainsworth, Extreme Right in Western Europe, p. 129. 39 Gregor Hall, "Now Is the Winter of Our Discontent," The Guardian, January 30, 2009. 40 Peter Geschiere, The Perils of Belonging: Autochtony, Citizenship and Exclusion in Africa and Europe (Chicago, IL and London: Chicago University Press, 2009), p. 23. 41 Geschiere, The Perils of Belonging, p. 5. 42 For a current discussion of Islamophobia and threats to liberal democracy see Martha Nussbaum, The New Religious Intolerance: Overcoming the Politics of Fear in an Anxious Age (Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012). 43 Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge & Keagan Paul Ltd, 1978); See also Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (London and New York: Routledge, 1996); Maxime Rodinson, Europe and the Mystique of Islam (London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., 2002); Katherine Bullock, Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil, 2nd ed. (London and Washington, DC: the International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2007). 44 The party only gained 11.4% in the September 2011 regional and local elections, down by 6.1% from the previous elections but is predicted to become a "20% party." See < http://morgenbladet.no/samfunn/2012/frp_pa_stigende_kurs>. 45 The leader of the English Defence League Steven Lennon praised David Cameron for his attack on muliticulturalism at the Munich Security Conference, February 5, 2011, < http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12371994>. 46 Stephen Castles and Alastair Davidson, Citizenship and Migration: Globalisation and the Politics of Belonging (Basingstoke and New York, NY: Palgrave, 2000), p. 160. 47 Nira Yuval-Davis, "The Dark Side of Democracy: Autochthony and the Radical Right," July 26, 2011, < http:/www.opendemocracy.net/5050/nira-nuyal-davis/dark side of democracy-autochthony –and-the –radical-right>. 48 Mangfold og muligheter Integreringspolitisk was approved by the Labour Party Conference April 10, 2011, < http://arbeiderpartiet.no/Politikken/Landsmoetet-2011>. 49 See Majoran Vivekananthan, "Det ubesvarte spørsmål," Dagsavisen, October 7, 2009, < http://www.dagsavisen.no/>. 50 Read the document on < http://arbeiderpartiet.no/Politikken/Landsmoetet-2011/Integreringspolitisk-dokument>. 51 See the Progress Party's home page on immigration, < http://www.frp.no/Innvandringspolitikk.d25-TgZfS0c.ip>. 52 Carl I. Hagen interview, Olso, June 12, 2009. 53 See < http://www.antirasistisk-senter.no/index.php?cat = 112911>. 54 OECD, "Jobs for Immigrants: Labour Market Integration in Norway," < http://www.imdi.no/Nyheter/Yrkesaktive innvandrere/>. 55 See < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v = dWsBuPBk4xI>, < http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/norsk-politikk/artikkel.php?artid = 10029617>. 56 Håkon Gundersen, "Det gjør seg ikke med et knips!," Morgenbladet, February 18–24, 2011. 57 See Pål Andreas Mæland and Magne Gaasemyr, "Ber eget parti skjerpe ordbruken," July 28, 2011, < http://www.bt.no/nyheter/lokalt/Ber-eget-parti-skjerpe-ordbruken–2545321.html#.T5FvEXpr1dg>; Jan Ovar Eide, "Vi har en kjempeutfrodring med vår retorikk," July 29, 2011, < http://www.fvn.no/lokalt/mandal/article887728.ece#.T4h0q3pr1dg>. Several other Progress Party politicians blamed the terror on Labour's immigration policy: see Arild Færaas, "Lokal Frp- topp om massedrapene—De første ofrene for norsk innvandringspolitikk," < http://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/norsk-politikk/artikkel.php?artid = 10081215>. 58 Elisabeth Skarstø Moen, "Min dag med niqab i Oslos gater," January 30, 2012. For the journalist's experience of walking around Oslo in a niqab and a chador for a day, See < http://www.vg.no/nyheter/meninger/artikkel.php?artid = 1007720>. For a critique of the Western notion of the veil see Bullock, Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil. 59 Said, Orientalism. 60 John Bowen, Why the French Don't Like Headscarves: Islam, the State and Public Space (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007). 61 See < http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13031397>. 65 Yasmina Mrabet, "Mainstream Western Media: Let Go of the Headscarf!," March 1, 2012, < http://www.peacexpeace.org/2012/03/mainstream-western-media-let-go-of-the-headscarf/> 62 See Peace X Peace, "Raise Women's Voices, Build Cultures of Peace," < http://www.peacexpeace.org/2012/03/mainstream-western-media-let-go-of-the-headscarf/>. 63 See interviews with women wearing the hijab in Bullock, Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil, pp. 35–84. 64 Yasmina Mrabet, "Mainstream Western Media: Let Go of the Headscarf!," March 1, 2012, < http://www.peacexpeace.org/2012/03/mainstream-western-media-let-go-of-the-headscarf/>. 66 For stereotyping and psychological impact on Somali immigrants in Norway, see Katrine Fangen, "Stolthet og krenkelse: Somalieres opplevelse av tilværelsen i Norge," Tidsskrift for norsk Psykologiforening 43:12 (2006), pp. 1309–1319. For a discussion on the media and how the majority population's prejudice might hinder integration, see < http://www.opplystemuslimer.no/2011/02/11/apent-brev-til-norske-avisredaktorer/>. 67 Hege Storhaug, Men størst av alt er friheten (Oslo: Kagge Forlag, 2006); see also Hege Storhaug, Tilslørt, Avslørt (Olso: Kagge Forlag, 2007). 68 Hege Storhaug has produced documentaries for Norwegian TV2 on forced marriages, honour killings, and female genital mutilation, and for state TV on child brides. She has won several prizes for her journalism and government politicians admitted to have been inspired by her to make a national action to stop female genital mutilation. Unni Wikan has advised the government on integration, is often consulted by the media, and has written extensively on women and Islam. There are many other academics and campaigners with much more nuanced views, but they have not received as much interest from the mainstream media or politicians. Marianne Gullestad argued that Wikan has contributed to create a difference between us and them and that her work contributes to maintaining stereotypes. See Marianne Gullestad, Det norske sett med nye øyne (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 2002). 69 The state withdrew 50% of its funding post July 22, 2011, and a public discussion is raging about the link between her anti-Islam propaganda, the terror attacks, and the reduction of funding. Storhaug argues that plans about reduction in funding pre-dated the terror attacks. < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v = hdYPSaEe8uV>. 70 Hege Storhaug, Rundlurt (Oslo: Kagge Forlag, 2009). See a similar argument in Christopher Caldwell on immigration and Islam in Europe, Reflections on the Revolution in Europe (London: Allen Lane, 2009). See Marthe Michelet on Storhaug's influence and involvement in integration debate, < http://www.dagbladet.no/2009/09/10/kultur/debatt/innvandring/human_rights_service/hege_storhaug/8047348/>. 71 See fjordman blogger discussing the English Defence League and how "people want to reclaim their streets from Muslim fanatics," < http://englishdefenceleague.org/the-noted-blogger-fjordman-discusses-the-english-defence-league-2/>. 72 See Unni Wikan, Life Among the Poor in Cairo (Devon: Tavistock, 1980); see also Unni Wikan, Behind the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Unni Wikan, In Honour of Fadime: Murder and Shame (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2008). 73 Unni Wikan, Generous Betrayal Politics of Culture in the New Europe (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2002), pp. 79–80. 74 Unni Wikan, Generous Betrayal Politics of Culture in the New Europe (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 2. 75 Unni Wikan, Generous Betrayal Politics of Culture in the New Europe (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 4. 76 For a deeper understanding of the issues, see Laila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1993). 77 Miriam Tiktin, "Sexual Violence as the Language of Border Control: Where French Feminist and Anti Immigration Rhetoric Meet," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 33:4 (2008), pp. 863–889. 78 For a discussion of the EU and asylum post 9/11 see Carl Levy, "The European Union after 9/11: The Demise of a Liberal Democratic Asylum Regime?" Government and Opposition 40:1 (2005), pp. 26–59. 79 Organisasjon Mot Offentlig Diskriminering is an independent organization that works to combat public discrimination. 80 Interviews June 27, 2008 and June 11, 2009. 81 Interview in Oslo June 16, 2009. Botti is the leader and creator of PAWA, which is an NGO for women of African origin in Norway. See < http://www.pawa.no>. 82 A law was passed in 2010 that made it compulsory for company boards to have at least 40% of each gender represented. If companies had not abided, they would have been deemed illegal and closed down. See < http://www.eu-norge.org/Aktuelt/Nyhetsartikler/Kvotering/>. 83 See Susanne Bygenes for a discussion of a possible diversification of gender equality and a suggestion to policy-makers to engage with the grassroots in Norway. Susanne Bygenes, "Making Equality Diverse? Merged Gender Equality and Anti-Discrimination Measures in Norway," NORA—Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research 18:2 (2001), pp. 88–104. 84 See Conny Roggeband for a discussion on the victim-agent dilemma for immigrant women in Dutch politics. Conny Roggeband, "The Victim-Agent Dilemma: How Migrant Women's Organizations in the Netherlands Deal with a Contradictory Policy Frame," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 35:4 (2010), pp. 943–967. 85 Uma Narayan, Dislocating Cultures; Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism (New York, NY and London: Routledge, 1997). 86 Khalid Salimi, "De tause i tale—Innvandrere som opptrer i media," Innvandrere i Norske medier: Medieskaptislamfrykt og usynlig hverdagsliv. < http://www.imdi.no/aarsrapport2009>. 87 Read Utrop, < http://www.utrop.no/>. 88 For a discussion on immigrant journalists in Norway see Majoran Vivekananthan, "Flerkulturell journalistikk i praksis," Innvandrere i Norske medier: Medieskaptislamfrykt og usynlig hverdagsliv, < http://www.imdi.no/aarsrapport2009>. 89 See (ECRI), < http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by-country/Norway/NOR-CbC-IV-2009-004-NOR.pdf>. 90 See Lori Peek, Behind the Backlash: Muslim Americans after 9/11 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011). 91 For a discussion of Versto's assumptions that Islam turns people into suicide bombers see < http://www.document.no/2010/12/olav-verstos-hode-pa-et-fat/>. 92 Paul Bjerke, "A-pressen", Klassekampen, December 29, 2011; and Øystein L. Pedersen and Sharam Alghasi, "Høyrepopulisme og media," < http://www.tilsett.hivolda.no/oystein/kronikker_om_media/hoyrepopulisme.htm>. 93 Innvandrere i norske medier: Medieskapt islamfrykt og usynlig hverdagsliv, < http://www.imdi.no/aarsrapport2009>. 94 Interview, Oslo, June 15, 2009. 95 See Per Fuglli, "Bygger fiendebilder," November 6, 2011, < http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/kronikker/article4218354.ece#.T5Fz5Hpr1dg>. 96 The British organization Hope Not Hate argues that bloggers and political activists have continued to network and proliferate since July 22. See Counter-Jihad report, < http://www.hopenothate.org.uk/counter-jihad/>.
Publication Year: 2012
Publication Date: 2012-12-01
Language: en
Type: article
Indexed In: ['crossref']
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Cited By Count: 31
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